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Southern  Branch 
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University  of  California 

Los  Angeles 

Form  L  1 


'JUN    5     1924 
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JUL  7      1925, 
JUL  1  0  1925 

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SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT 


>  o  n 


ScHooT.  Management 


PEACTICAL   SUGGESTIONS   CONCEKNING 

THE  CONDUCT  AND  LIFE  OF 

THE  SCHOOL 


BY 

SAMUEL    T.    Din^TOV 

PBOFEBBOR  or'  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION  IN    r^ACHEBS"   COLLEGE,    COLtTIBIA 

CfMIVBBSITT,   AND   BUPERINTENDBNT   OF  THE   COLLEGE   SCHOOLS 

AUTHOR  or  "SOCIAL  FHASES  OF  EDUCATION" 


/v3  6/J^ 


NEW  YORK 

CHAKLES  SCEIBNEE'S  SONS 

1904 


JAN    1905 


COPTRIQHT,   1903,    BT 

CHARLES  SCRIBNERS  SONS 


Soli 


XLO 

THOSE  PRINCIPALS,  TEACHERS,  AND 
STUDENTS  OF  EDUCATION  WITH  WHOM 
I  HAVE  WORKED  IN  THE  PAST,  THIS 
BOOK    IS   AFFECTIONATELY  INSCRIBED 


PREFACE 

The  purpose  of  this  volume  is  to  state  in  as  concise 
and  definite  form  as  possible  the  problems  of  school 
management,  and  to  make  helpful  suggestions  looking 
to  their  solution. 

This  work  is  not  composed  of  lectures,  but  is  a  special 
treatment  designed  to  aid  teachers  in  all  kinds  of  schools, 
as  well  as  students  of  education.  The  topics  treated 
comprise  a  portion  only  of  the  field  covered  by  the  au- 
thor in  his  courses  at  Columbia  University.  A  later 
volume  will  deal  with  school  administration  in  its  his- 
torical, political,  economic,  and  supervisory  aspects. 

The  life  of  the  teacher  is  too  crowded  and  the  issues 
of  practical  education  too  serious  to  warrant  the  use  of 
unnecessarily  technical  or  abstnise  terms.  Whatever 
defects  this  book  may  have,  it  is  believed  that  every 
sentence  is  so  clear  and  distinct  that  its  meaning  can  be 
readily  understood. 

The  author  acknowledges  his  indebtedness  to  Mr. 
Jesse  D.  Burks,  Principal  of  the  Training  School,  Pat- 
erson,  N.  J.,  for  substantial  assistance  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  this  volume.  Thanks  are  also  due  to  Miss  Mary 
McSkimmon  and  Mr.  John  C.  Packard  of  Brookline, 
Mass.,  and  Miss  Caroline  W.  Hotchkiss  of  the  Teach- 
ers College,  New  York,  for  outlines  of  lessons  contained 
in  the  Appendix. 


CONTENTS 


INTRODUCTORY— THE    NATURE    AND    SCOPE    OF 
SCHOOL   MANAGEMENT: 

(1)  Changed  Conception  of  the  School 

(2)  The  School  is  Complex    .     .     . 

(3)  Changes  in  its  Structure      .     . 

(4)  The  New  School  Government  . 

(5)  The   School    Bears    Relations   to 

Community 

(6)  Value  of  Public  Sentiment  .     . 

(7)  New  Ideals  of  Efficiency       .     . 

(8)  Factory  Methods  not  Possible  . 

(9)  The  Modern  Teacher  .     .  ^v.!*- 
(10)  Uniformity  not  Desirable      .     . 


the 


PAOE 

3 
4 
5 
6 


9 
10 
11 
12 


II.   THE   TEACHER: 

(1)  The  Power  of  Personality     .     .     . 

(2)  Importance  of  Good  Health       .     . 

(3)  Duties  Out  of  School 

(4)  Intellectual  Fitness  of  the  Teacher 

(5)  Moral  Qualities  Needed    .... 

(6)  Sincerity 

(7)  Honesty 


16 
17 
21 
22 
22 
23 
24 


X  Cojitents 

II.   THE   TEACHER   (Continued): 

PAOB 

(8)  The  Teacher  as  a  Social  Force      .     .  35 

(9)  Temperament 27 

(10)  The  Selection  of  Teachers    ....  27 

(11)  Methods  of  Certificating 29 

(12)  Terms  of  Probation 30 


III.  THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  TEACHER: 

(1)  Cultivate  the  Social  Life 

(2)  Seek  Desirable  Friendsliips 

(3)  Read  Many  Books  .     .     . 

(4)  Visit  the  Best  Schools      . 

(5)  Institutes  and  Conventions 

(6)  Teachers'  Meetings  .     .     , 

(7)  Travel  as  a  Means  of  Growth 

(8)  Freedom  Facilitates  Growth 


33 
34 
34 
37 
40 
42 
45 
46 


IV.   PHYSICAL   CONDITIONS: 

(1)  The  School  Site  and  Grounds  ...  49 

(2)  The  School  Building 51 

(3)  The  School-room 52 

(4)  Seating 53 

(a)  Lighting 54 

(6)  Cloak-rooms 55 

(7)  Corridors 55 

(8)  Staircases 56 

(9)  Other  Features 56 

(10)  Heating  and  Ventilation 57 


Contents  xi 

V.   PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  (Continued): 


PAGE 


(1)  Methods  of  Heating  and  Ventilation .  Gl 

(2)  Janitor  Service 64 

(3)  General  Sanitation  and  Hygiene    .     .  67 

(4)  General  Suggestions 70 

VI.   ORGANIZATION   OF  THE   SCHOOL: 

(1)  Distribution  of  Authority     ....  74 

(2)  Meetings  of  Principals 76 

(3)  Grading  of  Pupils 77 

(4)  The  Promotion  of  Pupils     ....  84 

'y 

VII.  THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL: 

(1)  The  Power  of  Personality     ....  86 

(2)  Plan  with  Care 87 

(3)  Act  with  Courage 88 

(4)  Be  Kind  and  Sympathetic    ....  89 

(5)  The  School  Virtues 89 

(6)  Self-control  and  Self-government  .     .  92 

(7)  The  School  City  Plan 93 

(8)  Democracy  and  Law 94 

(9)  The  Incorrigible 95 

(10)  Character  the  En<l  of  Discipline   .     .  96 

VIII.   SCHOOL   INCENTIVES: 

(1)  Artificial  and  Objectionable  Incentives  100 

(2)  Natural  and  Wortiiy  Incentives     .     .  105 


irii  Contents 

IX.   THE   CURRICULUM: 


PAGE 


(1)  Making  the  Curriculum Ill 

(2)  Using  the  Curriculum 118 

X.    THE   DAILY   PROGRAMME: 

(1)  The  Programme  a  Cross-section  of  the 

Scliool 125 

(2)  The  Opening  of  School 126 

(3)  The  Length  of  Sessions 127 

(4)  The  Number  of  Classes 129 

(5)  Study,  Recitation,  and  Recreation      .  130 

(6)  Work  and  Fatigue 131 

(7)  Gymnastics  and  Games 133 

(8)  Out-of-door  Games 136 

(9)  School-room  Games 137 

(10)  The  Automatic  Element 137 

(11)  Planning  and  Adaptation      ....  138 

XI.   THE   RECITATION: 

(1)  The  Doctrine  of  Interest  .     .     .     ,     .  141 

(2)  Preparation  by  Teacher 144 

(3)  Plans  of  Lessons 146 

(4)  Method 147 

(5)  Teaching  Devices 149 

(G)  Illustrative  Material 150 

(7)  The  Assignment  of  Lessons  ....  151 

(8)  Preparation  by  Pupils 152 


Contents  xiii 

XII.    THE   RECITATION  (Continued): 

PAOB 

(1)  The  Goal  of  Instruction 154 

(2)  The  Problem  of  Method 156 

(3)  Apperception 158 

(4)  Summary  of  Principles 160 

(5)  Ilerbart's  Five  Formal  Steps      .     .     .  161 

XIII.  TRAINING  PUPILS  TO   STUDY:  '^ 

(1)  Some  Difficulties  in  Learning  to  Study  168 

(2)  Methods  of  Securing  Application  and 

Concentration 170 

XIV.  REVIEWS    AND   EXAMINATIONS: 

(1)  The  Value  of  Thoroughness      .     ,     .175 

(2)  Oral  and  Written  Tests 176 

(3)  Educative  Examinations    .     .     .     .     .178 

(4)  Advantages  to  Pupils 179 

(5)  Advantages  to  the  Teacher    ....  180 

(6)  Suggestions  to  Teachers 181 

XV.   SCHOOL  GARDENS,  PLAYGROUNDS,  AND  VACA- 
TION  SCHOOLS: 

(1)  School  Gardens 187 

(2)  Educative  Factors 187 

(3)  Equipment 189 

(4)  Playgrounds  and  Play-centres    .     .     .  189 

(5)  Reasons  for  Vacation  Schools    .     .     .  192 

(6)  Aims 193 

(7)  Methods 193 

(8)  Results 195 


XIV 


Contents 


XVI.   THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

(1)  The  School  and  the  Church 
(3)  The  School  and  the  Home    .     . 

(3)  The  School  and  the  Library 

(4)  The  School  and  the  Museum     . 

(5)  The  School  and  the  Newspaper 

(6)  The  School  and  Industry       .     . 

(7)  The  School  and  Government 

XVII.   THE   SCHOOL   AS   A   SOCIAL   CENTRE: 

(1)  Uniform  Practice  not  Desirable 

(2)  The  Principle  of  School  Extension 

(3)  Free  Lectures  .... 

(4)  Playgrounds      .... 

(5)  Parents'  Associations 

(6)  Education  Societies  .     , 

(7)  School  Decoration     .     . 


200 
201 
204 
206 
207 
208 
211 


215 
216 

217 

n^ 

219 
223 


XVIII.   AFFILIATED   INTERESTS: 

(1)  Athletics 226 

(2)  Literary  Societies 228 

(3)  The  School  Paper 230 

(4)  Musical  Club» 231 

(5)  The  Summer  Camp 232 

(6)  The  Alumni  Association 232 

XIX.    SUPERVISION:. 

(1)  The  Superintendent 235 

(2)  Need  of  a  Dcfniite  Policy     .     .     .     .235 


Contents  xv 

XIX.    SUPERVISION  (Continued)  : 

PAGE 

(3)  Kelatiou  to  the  School-Board     .  .  23G 

(4)  Rehition  to  the  Community  ....  237 

(5)  Kektion  to  Principals  and  Teachers.  238 

(6)  The  Principal 241 

(7)  The  Conclnsion  of  the  Whole  Matter  244 

APPENDIX 

Outlines  of  Lessons 249 

Bibliography 276 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT 


l> 


CHAPTER  I 

INTRODUCTORY 

THE  NATURE  AND  SCOPE  OF  SCHOOL 
MANAGEMENT 

In  a  land  where  education  holds  a  supreme  place  in 
the  ideals  and  aspirations  of  the  people  the  work  of 
the  school  becomes  of  intrinsic  importance.  The  spirit 
in  which  the  teacher  works  and  the  knowledge  and  skill 
he  employs  are  of  infinite  concern,  not  only  to  himself 
but  to  those  for  whom  he  labors. 

School  management,  broadly  speaking,  relates  to  the 
conditions  affecting  the  school,  as  well  as  to  everything 
that  takes  place  there.     Physical  and  social  conditions, 
the  personality  and  equipment  of  the  teacher,  the  ideals 
^   and  standards  of  the  school,  and  the  means  and  meth- 
^    ods  employed  in   their  accomplishment  are  all  to  be 
^    considered.      Account   must    be   taken   also   of   those 
human  relations,  so  vital  and  imminent,  which  give  to 
the  problems  of  school  training  their  professional  char- 
acter and  dignity. 

1. — Changed  Conception  of  tlie  School. 

It  must  be  confessed  that  some  of  the  books  bear- 
ing the  title  of  "  School  Management,"  written  two  or 
three  decades  ago,  seem  inadequate  and  out  of  date.    It 


4<  School  Management 

is  no  fault  of  their  authors  that  they  are  so,  for  they 
were  distinguished  teachers  in  their  time.  Many  of  the 
principles  they  laid  down  are  universal  and  are  as  sound 
to-day  as  ever,  but  marvellous  changes  have  taken  place 
in  a  quarter  of  a  century,  and  the  conduct  of  the  modem 
school  must  be  treated  in  the  light  of  those  changes.  Is 
there  a  single  profession  the  members  of  which  can 
\)e  guided  by  the  rules  and  practices  of  twenty-five  years 
ago  ?  There  are  underlying  every  profession  and  voca- 
tion certain  broad  general  truths  which  we  must  not 
discard,  but  in  the  application  of  those  truths  we  have 
to  think  of  modern  needs  and  modern  conditions.  The 
doctor,  the  clerg3'man,  the  lawyer,  the  merchant,  the 
banker,  and  the  manufacturer  must  hew  closely  to  a 
line,  and  that  line  must  be  the  latest  discovery  and  the 
finest  possible  adaptation  of  means  to  end.  It  is  the 
age  of  the  specialist  and  the  inventor.  Multitudes  are 
engaged  in  tireless  investigation  and  research.  No 
sooner  is  new  truth  brought  to  light  than  it  must  be 
utilized  in  the  department  to  which  it  belongs.  Who- 
ever follows  the  methods  of  the  past,  instead  of  the 
present,  is  sure  to  meet  with  catastrophe ;  the  physi- 
cian loses  his  patients,  the  lawyer  his  clients,  the 
preacher  his  congregation,  and  the  merchant  his  cus- 
tomers. 

2. — The  School  is  Complex. 

Education  is  also  manifold  in  its  relations,  and  must 
take  account  of  all  forms  of  progress,  and  invoke  the 
aid  of  every  discovery  in  the  realm  of  man  and  nat- 
ure. The  subject  of  school  management,  therefore, 
can  no  longer  be  restricted  to  rules  and  devices  more 


Introductory  5 

or  less  mechanical  and  arbitrary,  but  must  rather  take 
a  comprehensive  view  of  human  development  in  the 
whole  range  of  its  possibilities.  In  the  school  of  to-day 
feeling  and  sentiment  are  to  be  cultivated  no  less  than 
thought  and  expression.  Spontaneous  self-directed 
conduct  is  more  important  than  passive  obedience. 
There  must  be  abounding  interest  and  alertness,  even  if 
some  portion  of  knowledge  is  sacrificed.  Character  is 
to  be  recognized  and  respected,  although  the  youth  may 
not  be  able  to  pass  an  examination  in  the  higher  mathe- 
matics. Honest  effort  is  to  be  held  at  a  high  valuation, 
and  honesty  in  the  smallest  details  of  school  work  is  to 
be  preferred  to  mere  scholarship. 

3. —  Changes  in  its  Structure. 

But  very  definite  changes  have  been  taking  place  in 
the  structure  of  the  school  itself.  Nearly  every  State  in 
the  Union  has  passed  laws  to  protect  the  child  from 
labor,  and  requiring  his  attendance  at  school.  Wher- 
ever there  is  backwardness  in  this  direction  a  storm  of 
protest  is  raised,  either  from  within  or  from  without. 

Physical  and  manual  training  have  been  adopted  not 
as  incidental  forms  of  amusement  but  as  fundamental 
means  of  development.  Various  kinds  of  handwork  are 
being  organized  to-day,  not  only  as  a  means  of  securing 
executive  ability  and  manual  skill,  but  in  order  that 
youth  may  acquire  an  insight  into  the  elements  of  in- 
dustry, and  may  be  acquainted  with  household  arts  and 
economics. 

Nature  study,  with  all  its  possibility  of  out-of-door  life 
and  intimate  knowledge  of  plants,  birds,  animals,  soil, 


6  School  Management 

and  climate,  has  assumed  an  important  place.  With  it 
has  come  the  school-garden,  bringing  a  new  interest  in 
agriculture  to  the  city  child,  aflbrding  opportunity  for 
the  applications  of  simple  chemistry  and  physics,  a 
knowledge  of  the  economic  questions  involved,  a  sense 
of  the  dignity  of  labor,  and  the  meaning  of  social  co- 
operation. 

Out  of  biology  and  child  study  has  grown  a  new 
gospel  of  the  physical  nature  of  the  child  and  the 
hygiene  of  study  and  play.  Physical  education  is  no 
longer  a  matter  of  formal  drill,  but  is  related  to  the  whole 
regimen  of  the  child — his  food,  dress,  bathing,  sleep, 
his  tasks,  and  his  games. 

4. — The  Neiu  School  Government. 

The  whole  theory  of  school  government  has  changed. 
"While  law  and  order  are  still  enthroned  in  the  school, 
the  teacher  is  no  longer  the  sole  interpreter  of  law  and 
the  arbitrary  dispenser  of  justice.  iBoth  teacher  and 
pupil  are  members  of  a  social  comuninity,  whose  wel- 
fare and  hajjpiness  are  the  dominant  aims  of  all  the 
members,  where  the  teacher  is  loved  and  respected  ac- 
cording as  he  loves  and  respects  his  pupils.  An  offence 
is  regarded  as  committed  against  the  community  rather 
than  against  the  teacher,  and  the  offender  is  treated  with 
such  good  sense  and  discrimination  as  to  awaken  sin- 
cere regret  on  his  part,  and  to  strengthen  the  bonds  of 
good  feeling  and  high  purpose  among  all  the  members 
of  the  school  circle.  Physical  punishment  may  some- 
times be  necessary,  but  it  is  the  merest  makeshift  in  any 
attempt  to  reach  the  higher  nature  and  summon  the 


Introductory  7 

will  to  resolute  well-doing.  Penal  reform  to-day  is  not 
satisfied  until  the  treatment  of  the  criminal  is  of  such 
a  character  as  to  arouse  his  better  nature  and  to  make 
him  hope  for  the  opportunity  of  becoming  a  self-respect- 
ing and  self-controlled  person.  How  much  more  should 
the  modern  school,  in  dealing  with  those  whose  minds 
are  sensitive  and  impressible,  be  free  of  harshness  and 
severity.  School  management  has  to  do  with  character 
in  the  making,  and  no  teacher  will  long  be  tolerated  who 
does  not  take  the  pupil  into  his  confidence  and  make 
him  an  active  participant  in  the  task  of  preserving  law 
and  order. 

5. — The  School  Bears  Relations  to  the  Community. 

As  the  government  of  a  nation  sustains  relations  with 
other  powers,  makes  treaties  with  them,  and  establishes 
relations  of  intercourse  and  co-operation,  so  the  author- 
ities of  the  school  and  its  teachers  have  a  sphere  of  in- 
fluence and  effort  outside  of  the  school-room.  The 
children  whom  they  teach  do  not  belong  to  the  school 
exclusively,  but  to  the  home,  the  church,  and  society  as 
well.  The  school  cannot  be  regarded  as  something 
apart  from  them,  but  rather  as  their  closest  ally.  One 
of  the  teacher's  first  duties  is  to  know  the  parents  of  his 
pupils  and  to  consult  with  them  freely  regarding  all 
their  interests.  There  should  be  a  sort  of  compact  be- 
tween the  teacher  and  every  parent,  whereby  it  is  agreed 
that  all  difi'erences  shall  be  settled  by  mutual  conference, 
and  that  no  misunderstanding  shall  bo  permitted  to 
exist.  While  the  teacher  may  not  be  able  to  visit  the 
home  often,  ho  may  arrange  for  an  occasional  visit  to 


8  School  Managevient 

the  scliool  by  some  representative  of  the  home.  The 
cordiality  and  sympathy  thus  established  between  the 
home  and  school  are  a  vital  element  in  school  manage- 
ment. 

Moreover,  there  are  many  ways  in  which  the  school 
stands  related  to  the  larger  life  of  the  community,  which 
are  of  no  little  importance.  The  proper  use  of  the 
public  library  and  its  reading-rooms,  the  enjoyment  of 
public  parks  and  playgrounds,  respect  for  property, 
public  and  private,  conduct  of  pupils  on  the  street  and 
in  public  places — all  these  things  must  be  kept  in  mind 
by  the  teacher  and  school  officers,  in  order  that  the 
school  may  do  its  part  in  securing  a  quiet  neighborhood 
and  those  pleasant  relations  which  make  citizenship  self- 
respecting  and  agreeable. 

6. —  Value  of  Public  Sentiment 

As  every  teacher  respects  his  profession  and  desires 
to  have  it  grow  in  the  estimation  of  the  people,  he  will 
spare  no  pains  in  educating  his  patrons  and  acquaint- 
ances to  the  highest  ideals,  in  order  that  there  may  be 
a  public  sentiment  strong  and  effective,  and  favorable 
to  the  most  progressive  measures.  It  is  remarkable 
how  a  corps  of  teachers  with  common  aims  and  ideals, 
who  are  loyal  to  each  other  and  the  cause  which  they 
are  serving,  can  indoctrinate  an  entire  community,  and 
secure  a  generous  and  sympathetic  attitude. 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  management  of  the  modem 
school  has  a  wide  field  of  activity,  and  cannot  be  blind 
to  any  interest  belonging  to  the  moral  and  social  wel- 
fare of  the  community.     Its  routine  is  important,  and 


Introductory  9 

its  machinery  must  be  well  oiled  and  cared  for,  but  the 
teacher  must  have  a  horizon  reaching  far  beyond  the 
school-room,  and  must  work  shoulder  to  shoulder  with 
others  who  are  seeking  a  better  public  life.  As  the 
school  of  to-day  seeks  the  most  symmetrical  growth  of 
the  individual,  so  that  in  body,  mind,  and  spirit  he  is 
fully  alive  and  alert,  professional  freedom  must  be 
granted  the  teacher,  so  that  he  may  be  governed  by  in- 
sight and  judgment  rather  than  by  inflexible  rules. 

7. — Neio  Ideals  of  Efficiency. 

As  the  function  of  the  school  has  been  enlarged  in 
recent  years,  so  that  its  conduct  presents  many  new  and 
complex  problems,  so  new  standards  of  efficiency  must 
be  recognized.  It  is  interesting  to  study  the  organiza- 
tion of  a  great  commercial  or  industrial  business  and 
see  what  suggestion  we  may  get  to  help  us  in  the 
school.  In  the  factory  we  find  everything  reduced  to 
system  ;  each  department  has  its  head,  who  is  held  re- 
sponsible for  every  bit  of  material  used.  He  has  to 
see  that  nothing  is  wasted,  that  the  machinery  is  kept 
in  pei-fect  order,  that  the  work  done  is  carefully  tested. 
He  records  the  time  given  by  the  employees,  and  any 
failure  in  duty  or  any  inferiority  of  workmanship  is  re- 
ported to  the  head  of  the  establishment.  We  see  that 
here  the  element  of  system  is  of  transcendent  impor- 
tance. The  margin  of  profit  is  close,  and  it  is  only  by 
the  most  rigid  care  and  economy  in  the  use  of  time  and 
materials  that  there  is  any  profit  whatever.  In  several 
lines  of  manufacturing  the  net  earnings  come  fi'om  cer- 
tain by-products. 


10  School  Management 

The  value  of  system  in  the  schools  cannot  be  mini- 
mized ;  at  the  same  time  the  school  is  not  a  factory, 
and  the  foreman  in  the  cotton  mills,  according  to  the 
modern  standards,  would  make  a  poor  schoolmaster. 
In  the  factory,  attention  is  riveted  upon  material  things, 
their  qualities,  the  processes  to  which  they  are  subject- 
ed, and  the  uses  to  which  they  are  to  be  put.  In  the 
school  the  emphasis  is  laid  upon  the  thiugs  which  are 
moral  and  spiritual.  The  factory  system  applied  to  a 
school,  while  presenting  an  attractive  exterior,  is  deaden- 
ing as  regards  those  finer  products  of  feeling,  taste,  in- 
terest, and  ambition  which  the  school  ought  to  nurture. 
It  is  distressing  to  see  a  schoolmaster  to-day  exhibit- 
ing his  school  to  visitors  in  their  concerted  movements 
of  sitting,  rising,  marching,  and  reciting,  as  though  such 
results  of  military  drill  were  of  very  great  moment. 
While  certain  movements  of  the  school  may  well  be 
carried  on  with  promptness  and  precision,  they  are  but 
a  poor  test  of  the  real  efficiency  of  the  master  or 
teacher. 

8. — Factory  Methods  not  Possible. 

In  the  factory  a  record  is  kept  of  the  piece-work 
accomplished  by  the  several  operatives.  Here  we  have 
a  kind  of  marking  system  which  determines  the  amount 
of  compensation  the  workers  are  to  receive.  This  is 
a  just  and  equitable  arrangement;  each  one  is  paid 
for  the  work  he  does.  He  has  no  ground  for  dissatis- 
faction if  he  fails  to  receive  as  much  as  his  neighbor ; 
the  result,  being  based  upon  definite  measurement  of 
what  is  produced,  determines  the  reward  with  justice 
and  impartiality.     But  how  is  it  in  the  school  ?     Can 


Introductory  11 

tlie  efforts  or  even  the  accomplishments  of  the  pupils 
be  reduced  to  piece-work  ?  Can  credit  for  work  at- 
tempted or  performed  be  assigned  with  anything  like 
the  precision  that  is  possible  in  the  factory?  If  we 
employ  a  rigid  marking  system  to  determine  the  stand- 
ing of  our  pupils,  are  we  not  likely  to  ignore  those  mani- 
fold fruits  of  the  spirit  and  of  the  imagination  which 
are  the  most  precious  flowers  of  education  and  culture  ? 
Are  we  not  forced  to  say  that  the  ideals  of  efficiency  of 
the  truly  modern  school  are  greatly  changed  since  the 
time  when  mere  system  and  uniformity  were  dominant 
aims  ?  If  this  statement  seems  revolutionary  at  first, 
let  it  be  considered  in  all  its  bearings  before  judgment 
is  rendered.  Certain  it  is,  that  many  teachers  and  edu- 
cators, if  they  must  pursue  the  methods  of  the  factory, 
would  prefer  to  go  into  manufacturing,  where  the  emolu- 
ments are  usually  greater  than  in  teaching. 

9. — TJie  3Iodern  Teacher. 

Another  field  we  have  to  explore  is  the  life  and  growth 
of  the  teacher.  He  who  manages  the  school  must  first 
manage  himself.  He  must  be  sane  and  healthy.  His 
outlook  upon  life  must  be  hopeful.  When  we  come  to 
discuss  the  means  of  professional  and  personal  growth 
of  the  teacher,  we  shall  find  that  in  his  need  of  general 
culture  and  breadth  of  view  he  is  not  unlike  men  in 
other  professions.  New  ideals  confront  us,  not  merely 
because  the  school  must  be  a  better  school  than  for- 
merly, but  because  it  is  possible  to  live  a  richer  life,  and 
draw  from  many  more  sources  of  nourishment  and  in- 
spiration.    Cheap  books  and  magazines,  post-office,  and 


12  School  Management 

the  travelling  library,  as  well  as  ease  of  travel,  bring  the 
teacher  into  closer  touch  with  his  fellow-men,  and  give 
him  superior  opportunities  of  growth. 

No  longer  is  the  schoolmaster  caricatured  in  litera- 
ture, and  made  the  butt  of  ridicule;  no  longer  is  he  a 
social  cipher.  On  the  contrary,  he  is  in  the  ascendant 
to-day,  for  he  is  believed  to  hold  a  strategic  position  and 
to  set  the  pace  for  social  and  educational  work.  We 
must  also  carry  our  investigation  into  those  means  and 
materials  which  constitute  the  curriculum  of  the  school. 
The  great  change  to  be  noted  here  is  that  the  require- 
ments in  subject-matter  are  more  qualitative  and  less 
quantitative.  This  remark  applies  both  to  recitations 
and  examinations.  The  spirit  with  which  the  child 
does  his  work  and  the  interest  with  which  he  regards  it 
are  acknowledged  to  be  of  more  account  than  any  fixed 
amount  of  acquisition.  Superintendents  of  schools  are 
not  infallible,  and  are  often  more  insistent  upon  the 
letter  that  killeth  than  upon  the  spirit  that  maketh 
alive.  The  individual  teacher  is  comparatively  helpless 
in  the  pursuit  of  high  ideals,  provided  he  is  attached  to 
a  system  which  is  unmindful  of  what  those  ideals  de- 
mand. 

10. — Uniformity  not  Desirable. 

The  best  course  of  study  is  one  which  springs  from 
the  good  judgment  and  experience  of  the  teachers,  and 
hence  has  their  entire  approval ;  even  then  there  should 
be  permitted  large  freedom  in  its  application.  It  may 
not  be  wise  for  the  different  schools  of  the  town  to  do 
exactly  the  same  work  either  in  kind  or  amount.  The 
teacher  often  finds  one  class  less  capable  than  another, 


In  troductory  1 3 

and  the  situation  becomes  painful  when  the  supervisor 
comes  in  with  his  measuring-rod  and  expresses  dissat- 
isfaction with  the  result.  Hence  it  is  that  the  most 
current  conception  of  an  efficient  supervisor  or  superin- 
tendent is  that  of  one  who  claims  freedom  for  himself 
and  grants  it  to  others ;  who  believes  in  flexibility,  and 
is  ready  to  commend  the  teacher  who,  in  respect  to  the 
class  and  to  the  individual  members  of  the  class,  is  able 
to  differentiate  upon  the  basis  of  capacity  and  ability. 

When  we  come  to  devote  several  chapters  to  teaching 
and  recitation  it  would  seem  that  we  are  entering  a  field 
where  there  is  little  new  and  where  we  can  follow  only 
well-beaten  paths.  There  is  some  force  in  this,  and  if 
we  could  only  fully  possess  ourselves  of  the  spirit  and 
method  of  a  Socrates  or  an  Arnold,  we  would  doubtless 
become  eminent  in  our  profession.  But  the  greatest 
and  most  successful  teachers  have  not  become  so  by 
imitation.  That  is  only  one  factor  and  one  less  impor- 
tant than  others.  Tliorough  scholarship,  vigorous  per- 
sonality, profound  sympathy,  and  tactful  efiiciency  all 
enter  into  teaching  and  transcend  in  importance  any 
particular  method.  The  teacher  of  to-day  must  have  a 
certain  all-roundedness  possessed  by  few  of  those  of  the 
past,  however  great  they  were.  The  doctrines  of  self- 
activity  and  the  interdependence  of  the  motor  powers 
and  brain-centres  have  well-nigh  revolutionized  all  teach- 
ing. It  is  said  that  a  man  receiving  a  salary  of  850,000 
a  year  said,  not  long  since:  "I  am  paid  this  annual 
stipend  for  the  mistakes  I  do  not  make."  In  other 
words,  his  value  consisted  largely  in  what  he  refrained 
from  doing.  Is  not  this  in  accord  with  the  idea  that  the 
modem  teacher  is  skilful  according  as  he  refrains  from 


14  School  Management 

doing  what  his  pupils  can  do  for  themselves.  If  we  fully 
accept  this  suggestion  we  shall  find  in  our  study  of  this 
important  department  of  school  management  the  press- 
ing need  of  a  new  set  of  cautions  and  precepts.  Our 
most  serious  attention  is  directed  to  the  child  rather 
than  to  the  subject-matter.  Through  an  intimate  ac- 
quaintance with  his  nature  and  his  needs  the  teacher  is 
able  to  supply  the  right  nutrition  at  the  right  time. 

In  the  chapters  which  follow  we  have  to  discuss  the 
programme,  incentives  used  in  the  school,  the  nature  and 
method  of  the  recitation,  the  functions  of  apperception 
and  interest,  and  the  five  formal  steps.  Practical  illus- 
trations in  the  organization  of  subjects  for  teaching  will 
be  given.  Here,  as  in  the  methods  of  training  pupils 
to  study,  plans  for  examinations,  and  methods  of  pro- 
motion, we  are  not  obliged  to  follow  beaten  paths.  The 
school  is  a  growing  institution,  and  adopts  new  forms 
and  practices  according  as  pedagogical  insight  is  given 
free  play. 

The  school  and  community  are  inseparable  forces, 
and  our  labor  will  not  be  complete  until  we  have 
brought  to  light  all  those  relationships,  so  subtle  and 
influential,  which,  if  rightly  regarded,  bring  satisfaction 
and  happiness  to  all  concerned. 

In  all  that  follows  we  prefer  to  avoid  that  dogmatic 
form  of  statement  which  results  in  a  form  of  text  not 
unlike  the  ten  commandments  or  the  sayings  of  Poor 
Richard.  Paradoxical  as  it  may  seem,  many  things  are 
true  to-day  that  may  not  be  true  to-morrow.  We  use 
the  best  light  we  have  and  constantly  seek  for  more. 
In  the  days  of  wireless  telegraphy  and  the  air-ship  it 
pays  to  be  expectant. 


Introductory  15 


TOPICAL  REVIEW 

I.  The  scope  of  school  management. 

a.  What  social  changes  have  affected  the  school  ? 

3.  New  moral  aims. 

4.  New  studies.    A  recognition  of  the  physical  and  psychical 
nature  of  the  child. 

5.  The  relation  of  teacher  and  parent. 

6.  Why  must  the  school  help  the  community? 

7.  Distinguish  between  the  methods  of  the  factory  and  those  of 
the  school. 

8.  New  opportunities  for  the  teacher. 


•  CHAPTER  II 

THE  TEACHER 

The  teaclier  is  the  dominant  force  in  every  school. 
Hence  the  questions,  what  the  teacher  should  be,  and 
how  he  should  attain  the  highest  usefulness,  are  among 
the  first  we  have  to  consider.  The  skilled  superin- 
tendent shows  his  sagacity  in  nothing  so  much  as  in 
the  selection  of  teachers.  All  intending  to  enter  the 
profession,  as  well  as  those  duly  installed  in  it,  may 
well  try  to  see  themselves  as  others  see  them.  There 
are  many  steps  in  the  ladder  which  lead  from  the  low- 
salaried  places  in  the  smaller  communities  to  those 
commanding  positions  in  educational  work  which  both 
men  and  women  may  attain. 

1. — The  Poioer  of  Pei'sonality.  > 

Every  young  person  should  realize  that  the  greatest 
factor  in  his  success  is  his  own  personal  charm  and 
ability.  If,  as  is  often  the  case,  he  is  not  rated  as  high 
as  he  thinks  he  deserves,  he  must  look  for  some  weak- 
ness or  limitation  in  himself,  of  which  he  has  perhaps 
hitherto  been  unconscious. 

The  achievements  of  man  or  woman  can  only  be 
understood  by  taking  into  account  the  personal  factor. 
This  is  especially  true  in  teaching ;  in  fact,  it  can  be  laid 

16 


The  Teacher  17 

down  as  one  of  those  pedagogic  proverbs  that  are  likely 
to  endure.  The  teacher  makes  the  school  because  his 
presence,  his  sympathy,  his  sincere  interest  and  helpful- 
ness are  ever  operating  upon  his  pupils.  He  draws 
them  to  himself  according  as  he  possesses  magnetic 
power.  Can  this  abihty  to  attract,  to  hold,  and  to  in- 
spire pupils  be  acquired?  If  it  can,  there  are  abundant 
reasons  for  beginning  our  treatment  of  school  manage- 
ment with  a  kind  of  character  study.  We  may  thus  be 
able  to  define  the  qualities  belonging  to  the  successful 
teacher  so  clearly  as  to  make  ambitious  beginners  eager 
to  possess  them. 

2. — Importance  of  Good  Health. 

The  teacher  should  be  well  and  strong.  He  needs 
for  his  work  the  joy  in  life  that  goes  with  a  sound  body, 
trained  to  perform  every  function  in  a  perfect  manner. 
The  school  should  never  be  a  hospital  for  weak  or  dis- 
eased people.  It  is  bad  for  the  pupils,  and  they  are 
the  chief  concern.  A  teacher  whose  health  is  under- 
mined is  almost  sure  to  grow  worse  and  to  become  a 
victim  of  those  conditions  which  often  tempt  us  to 
undertake  what  we  should  not.  Physical  examinations 
for  teachers  are  quite  as  desirable  as  any  other,  and  are 
likely  in  time  to  be  universally  required. 

Poor  health  in  the  teacher  often  implies  impairment 
of  the  nervous  system  and  a  lack  of  self-control  and  re- 
pose of  manner,  which  are  absolutely  fatal  to  the  best 
interests  of  the  school.  The  person  whose  digestion  is 
bad,  who  cannot  sleep  well,  or  who  for  any  cause  is 
unable  to  exercise  in  the  open  air,  seldom  has  a  sweet 


18  School  Management 

temper  or  calm  judgment.  Such  teachers  unwittingly 
arouse  antagonisms  in  their  pupils  which  are  reflected 
at  home,  and  the  relations  between  the  home  and  the 
school  become  anything  but  agreeable.  I  have  known 
of  more  than  one  case  where  the  teacher's  health  was  so 
delicate  as  to  require  a  much  higher  temperature  in  the 
room  than  was  good  for  the  pupils,  or  was  favorable  for 
the  cheerful  performance  of  their  work.  This  portion 
of  the  subject  naturally  addresses  itself  not  only  to 
teachers  themselves  but  to  school  authorities  who  permit 
such  a  state  of  things  to  exist.  However  hard  it  may 
be  for  weak,  diseased,  or  disabled  teachers  to  relin- 
quish their  positions,  I  believe  in  the  end  they  will  be 
gainers  rather  than  losers.  A  case  is  recalled  where  a 
teacher  in  poor  health  showed  a  morbid  unwillingness 
to  resign,  but  was  finally  persuaded  to  do  so.  While 
for  some  time  she  maintained  an  air  of  bitterness  toward 
the  superintendent,  after  having  regained  her  health, 
and  finding  a  new  joy  in  life,  she  came  and  thanked  him 
for  what  he  had  done. 

But,  turning  from  this  phase  of  the  subject  to  one 
which  is  more  hopeful  and  constructive,  let  it  be  under- 
stood that,  in  the  vast  number  of  cases,  the  teacher,  as 
far  as  health  is  concerned,  is  master  of  his  own  destiny. 
The  first  years  of  teaching  are  often  a  crucial  test  of  a 
young  person's  good  sense  and  foresightedness.  It  is 
then  that  he  is  laying  the  foundations  of  his  career. 
Health  and  vigor  are  his  chief  assets ;  even  scholarship 
and  professional  training  avail  little  unless  accompanied 
by  physical  stamina.  Let  us  try  to  formulate  this 
matter  in  a  few  suggestions  that  are  comprehensive  and 
universal. 


The  Teacher  19 

1.  The  teacher  needs  the  comforts  of  a  good  home. 
This  should  include  a  quiet,  sunny  room,  which  is  well 
warmed  in  winter,  so  that  preparation  for  each  day's 
work  may  be  made  under  the  best  possible  conditions ; 
and,  in  passing,  it  should  be  said  that  thorough  prep- 
aration for  daily  work  is  distinctly  a  health  precaution. 
It  gives  satisfaction  and  confidence,  prevents  worry,  and 
leads  to  conscious  success. 

2.  The  teacher  needs  also  nutritious,  appetizing  food 
served  at  regular  hours.  Intemperance  and  irregu- 
larities of  all  kinds  are  inconsistent  with  those  stand- 
ards of  conduct  and  character  which  should  govern  the 
teacher  of  youth.  The  frequent  violations  of  this  prin- 
ciple are  a  stain  on  the  profession.  Persistent  selfish 
indulgence  leaves  its  mark  upon  many  countenances  and 
leads  to  impaired  usefulness  and  lessened  respect  in  the 
community. 

3.  The  teacher  cannot  afford  habitually  to  deprive 
himself  of  necessary  sleep,  even  for  the  sake  of  study  or 
social  pleasure.  As  long  as  he  was  a  student  solely,  he 
could  burn  the  midnight  oil  without  harming  anyone 
but  himself ;  but  now  he  is  a  public  servant  and  needs 
to  have  reserve  force  for  those  emergencies  and  off-days 
which  come  in  every  teacher's  experience.  The  laws  of 
nature  are  inexorable,  and  no  guilty  person  can  hope  to 
escape  the  penalties  consequent  upon  their  violation. 
In  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  both  as  teacher  and  student, 
the  person  will  accomplish  more  that  is  worth  doing 
with  a  full  quota  of  sleep  and  with  reduced  hours  for 
study.  There  is  a  morbid  conscientiousness  which 
leads  teachers  to  spend  dreary  hours  in  examining  and 
marking  papers  when  the  best  interests  of  their  pupils 


20  School  Management 

demand  they  should  be  in  bed  and  asleep.  Teachers 
■u'ho  do  this  are  not  only  sinning  against  themselves  but 
against  their  pupils,  for  they  are  depriving  them  of  that 
experience,  so  valuable,  which  would  make  them  com- 
petent to  criticise  and  correct  their  own  work.  Refer- 
ence will  be  made  to  this  subject  in  a  later  chapter. 

4.  Of  equal  importance  to  the  teacher  is  out-of-door 
life.  The  intrinsic  value  of  fresh  air  and  exercise  to 
sedentary  workers  is  too  well  understood  to  need  ex- 
planation. We  are  children  of  nature,  but  are  so  hedged 
about  by  the  artificialities  of  our  modern  life  that  we 
lose  to  a  large  extent  the  exhilaration  of  life.  We  do 
not,  like  the  Indian,  enjoy  the  abundance  of  sunlight 
and  air  which  the  Creator  intended  for  us,  but  rather 
take  them  as  medicine  and  often  only  upon  the  doctor's 
prescription.  Out-of-door  sports  and  athletics  aflford 
special  opportunities  to  teachers.  There  is  nothing 
more  hopeful  in  our  modern  life  than  the  sight  of  men 
and  women  of  all  ages  enjoying  golf,  tennis,  to  say 
nothing  of  boating,  riding,  and  walking.  The  teacher 
who  does  not  have  a  scheme  of  daily  life  which  includes 
regular  exercise  is  willingly  assuming  a  handicap  which 
may  cost  him  the  race.  The  trolley-car  may  prove  a 
menace  to  good  health  if  it  becomes  a  substitute  for  the 
morning  or  afternoon  walk.  There  are  many  claims  of 
a  private  and  professional  nature  for  the  free  hours  of 
the  Saturday  holiday,  all  of  which  are  legitimate,  but  a 
portion  of  it  should  be  devoted  to  some  pleasurable 
out-of-door  diversion. 


The  Teacher  21 

3. — Duties  Out  of  School. 

Teachers  receiving  limited  compensation  are  often 
tempted  to  engage  in  occupations  out  of  school  which 
make  too  heavy  a  drain  upon  their  time  and  energies. 
One  cannot  wisely  undertake  to  be  a  housekeeper,  a 
nurse,  or  an  editor  without  discounting  his  success  in 
the  school.  He  may  render  incidental  assistance  in 
any  of  these  activities  and  find  it  profitable  diver- 
sion. 

Ought  a  teacher  to  engage  in  Sunday-school  work? 
is  a  question  w^hich  must  usually  be  referred  to  private 
judgment.  The  need  is  very  great  for  sound  religious 
instruction,  and  nobody  is  so  well  equipped  for  this  work 
as  the  day-school  teacher.  It  brings  him  into  a  closer 
and  more  personal  touch  with  the  young,  and  gives  him 
a  fresh  consciousness  of  those  deeper  life  problems 
which  belong  to  all  true  education.  Doubtless  many 
teachers  need  this  experience,  and  are  helped  and  re- 
freshed by  it ;  others  have  so  little  reserve  force  that 
they  need  absolute  rest  on  Sunday  and  should  not  per- 
mit a  morbid  conscientiousness  to  overpower  better 
judgment.  Pastors  and  Christian  leaders  are  often  im- 
bued Avith  the  idea  that  there  is  no  salvation  for  the 
yoiing  anywhere  but  in  the  Sunday-school,  but  the 
ethical  possibilities  of  the  day-school  are  becoming 
greater  year  by  year,  as  increasing  attention  is  given  to 
character-building,  and  all  the  means  and  appliances  of 
the  school  are  made  to  foster  this  end.  "We  do  not 
therefore  hesitate  to  say  that  the  question  whether  the 
day-school  teacher  shall  engage  in  Sunday-school  work 
should  be  considered  without  sentiment  or  emotion  after 


22  School  Management 

a  careful  weighing  of  practical  considerations  of  Lealtb 
and  duty. 


4. — Intellectual  Fitness  of  the  Teacher. 

Many  people  drift  into  their  vocation  along  the  lines 
of  least  resistance,  thus  becoming  teachers  almost  by 
accident.  If  any  profession  is  worthy  of  good  mental 
equipment  it  is  teaching.  Fortunately,  while  persons 
of  inferior  ability  are  almost  sure  to  be  found  in  the 
lower  ranks  of  the  profession,  there  are  now  so  many 
checks  upon  advancement,  and  standards  are  being 
raised  so  rapidly,  that  only  those  of  real  intellectual 
worth  are  likely  to  reach  the  better  paid  and  more  hon- 
ored positions.  The  world  seems  to  have  places  for 
all  its  inhabitants  provided  those  places  are  diligently 
sought.  For  those  of  mediocre  ability  there  are  call- 
ings where  deep  thinking,  imagination,  and  constructive 
genius  are  not  required.  The  man  of  one  talent  need 
not  dig  in  the  earth  and  hide  his  treasure,  neither  may 
he  seek  to  fill  a  position  where  five  talents  are  essential 
and  where  ten  may  be  used  to  advantage. 


5. — Moral  Qualities  Needed. 

The  present  emphasis  given  to  imitation  and  sugges- 
tion constitute  a  claim  for  moral  uprightness  in  the 
teacher  that  is  almost  startling.  The  student  of  child- 
hood observes  how  sensitive  the  child  is  to  personality. 
While  children  are  at  home  they  are  to  a  good  extent 
faithful  copies  of  father  or  mother.  It  is  an  open  ques- 
tion whether  the  results  of  imitation  are  not  greater 


/ 


The  Teacher  23 

than  those  of  heredity.  The  expression,  the  tone,  the 
walk,  and  the  disposition  are  like  those  of  the  parent, 
simply  because  the  child  follows  the  pattern  which  is 
so  constantly  before  him.  The  more  isolated  families 
are,  the  more  significant  and  specialized  become  the 
family  traits.  When  the  child  enters  school  he  be- 
comes subject  to  the  dominating  influence  of  a  new  per- 
sonality. According  as  he  loves  his  teacher  he  will  imi- 
tate her  and  become  fashioned  after  her  pattern. 

This  phenomenon,  while  affording  a  most  valuable 
opportunity  to  the  teacher,  and  giving  him  a  special 
function  as  leader,  imposes  moral  responsibility  of  the 
most  serious  sort.  It  is  a  compliment  to  say  of  a  teach- 
er, "  He  has  put  his  stamp  upon  every  pupil,"  only  when 
that  stamp  expresses  nobility  and  righteousness.  We 
see,  then,  how  necessary  it  is  that  the  teacher  become 
the  complete  man  or  the  complete  woman,  willing  and 
able  to  stand  for  the  right  at  all  hazards,  the  champion 
of  every  good  cause,  and  a  worker  for  it  as  well. 

6. — Sincerity. 

Children  are  not  easily  deceived.  If  it  were  right  for 
a  person  to  be  other  than  sincere,  it  is  certainly  not 
safe  to  try  repeatedly  the  experiment  in  the  school- 
room. Let  any  pretence  or  sham  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  be  recognized  and  become  a  subject  of  gossip 
in  the  school,  the  teacher's  moral  stock  is  at  once  rated 
low.  He  has  been  weighed  in  the  balance  and  found 
wanting.  Anyone  whose  besetting  sin  is  to  try  to  seem 
different  from  what  he  is,  or  seem  to  be  able  to  do  what 
he  cannot  do,  has  indeed  a  hard  battle  on  his  hands  and 


24  School  Management 

one  from  wliicli  lie  had  better  retreat.  Overpraise  of 
the  efforts  or  work  of  a  pupil  is  just  as  bad  as  undue 
criticism.  Moderate  reserve  is  better  than  excessive 
compliment.  To  say  always  to  pupils  what  is  fair  and 
just  tends  to  establish  confidence  and  respect,  without 
which  a  teacher  can  accomplish  but  little. 

7. — Honesty. 

This  plain,  every-day  word  may  be  regarded  as  in- 
cluding many  minor  traits  of  character  which  are  intrin- 
sic in  the  school.  Instead  of  making  a  finer  analysis 
we  will  say  once  for  all,  the  teacher  must  be  honest. 
Whether  the  Father  of  his  Country  injured  the  cherry- 
tree  or  told  the  exact  truth  about  it  is  of  far  less  ac- 
count than  the  fact  that  the  story  of  his  truthfulness 
has  become  a  national  idyl  and  has  made  honesty  a 
great  cardinal  virtue  of  the  American  people.  There 
are  only  two  kinds  of  politicians,  the  honest  and  dis- 
honest ;  so  with  merchants,  clergymen,  journalists,  and 
teachers.  If  a  man  is  not  honest  he  is  a  cipher  in  the 
moral  scale  ;  and  so  if  we  can  apply  the  test  of  honesty 
to  ourselves  and  to  our  fellow-teachers  we  shall  soon 
know  who  are  accredited  and  accounted  fit  to  be  lead- 
ers of  children  and  youth. 

The  application  of  this  principle  is  wide  and  varied. 
It  begins  in  the  morning  hours  and  stands  guard 
throughout  the  day.  It  reveals  itself  in  countenance 
and  voice,  and  gives  steadiness  and  proportion  to  all 
work.  Honesty  begets  honesty,  and  the  honest  teach- 
er makes  the  honest  pupil.  The  lad  in  the  school  is 
the  future  citizen,  and  he  will  be  a  good  citizen  only  as 


The  Teacher  25 

honesty   becomes  a  habit  inseparable  from  his  whole 
life. 

Promises  in  the  school  as  elsewhere  are  sacred  and 
must  be  kept.  lu  evil  report  as  well  as  in  good  reporf 
principles  are  to  be  defended  and  truth  is  to  stand.  All 
work  is  to  be  honestly  done.  So  staunch  must  be  this 
doctrine  that  it  reaches  the  home  and  restrains  parents 
from  unduly  aiding  their  children  in  their  school  tasks. 
All  spurious  exhibitions  of  school  work,  for  the  sake  of 
public  notice,  should  be  tabooed  both  by  teacher  and 
pupil.  The  teacher  whose  conduct  toward  the  child  of 
the  rich  or  influential  is  marked  by  any  special  cour- 
tesy or  partiality  loses  measurably  his  popularity  and 
influence.  The  American  public  school  is  the  purest 
type  of  democracy  and  equality  which  modern  civiliza- 
tion presents.  He  who  violates  its  first  principles  and 
is  dishonest  for  the  sake  of  some  personal  advantage  is 
unworthy  of  his  profession. 

8. — The  Teacher  as  a  Social  Force. 

The  school  exists  to  create  a  better  social  life,  hence 
the  teacher  must  be  strong  on  the  social  side.  His  self- 
respect  and  dignity  of  bearing  must  be  such  as  to  make 
him  esteemed  and  beloved  in  all  circles.  He  should  be 
broadly  interested  in  the  community  life  about  him,  in 
the  daily  employments  of  the  people,  in  their  various 
enterprises  and  undertakiugs.  Every  community  is  a 
sort  of  economic  microcosm  of  the  world  ;  as  an  educa- 
tor he  should  study  and  understand  the  industrial,  com- 
mercial, and  social  life  about  him  with  their  various  in- 
terpretations.     He  should  earnestly  co-operate  in  all 


26  ScJiool  Management 

efforts  to  further  public  sanitation  and  civic  progress. 
He  should  be  ready  to  combine  with  others  at  all  times 
for  every  sort  of  human  betterment. 

Unselfish  social  conduct  tends  to  react  upon  any 
person,  and  make  him  more  sympathetic  and  kind- 
hearted.  Practice  of  social  virtue  implies  social  growth 
in  the  qualities  that  are  specially  needful  in  a  teacher. 

There  is  all  the  difference  in  the  world  between  the 
teacher  who  is  instinctively  social  and  the  one  who  is 
strongly  individualistic.  The  one  adapts  himself  to  cir- 
cumstances and  the  other  is  a  martinet.  For  example  : 
a  child  enters  school  late  in  the  morning,  and  the  teacher 
knows  the  mother  is  ill ;  she  may  inquire  kindly  after 
the  sick  parent  and  say  nothing  about  tardiness,  or  she 
may  remind  the  child  that  he  must  remain  after  school 
as  a  punishment.  The  latter  course  would  not  be  un- 
usual, but  it  can  hardly  be  called  social.  Again,  a  boy 
or  girl  straggling  to  assist  in  the  home  and  at  the  same 
time  continue  at  school  gets  less  sleep  than  he  needs, 
and  consequently  does  poor  work  in  his  studies.  In 
such  a  case  the  teacher  reveals  himself  as  social  or  un- 
social. He  is  exhibiting  himself  as  human  and  kind,  or 
as  hard-hearted  and  indifferent.  Many  other  instances 
might  be  cited  where  this  test  operates ;  in  fact,  the  whole 
stream  of  life  in  the  school  is  filled  with  such  incidents. 
Pupils  have  their  own  nomenclature  for  the  words .  and 
acts  of  the  teacher  which  seem  to  them  to  merit  cen- 
sure. The  word  "  unsocial "  is  a  gentlemanly  name  for 
a  variety  of  offences  against  good  society,  which  too 
often  mar  the  beauty  of  the  school  life  and  blight  the 
influence  of  the  teacher. 


Tlie  Teacher  27 

9. — Temperament. 

Much  that  constitutes  the  individuality  of  the  person 
is  ascribed  to  temperament.  This  is  not  in  any  sense  a 
distinct  and  separate  attribute,  but  is  a  sort  of  complex 
product  partly  physical,  partly  mental  and  moral.  It 
will  readily  be  agreed  that  a  teacher  should  possess  a 
sanguine,  hopeful  temperament.  Is  it  not  fair  to  assume 
that  every  young  person  may  cultivate  those  traits  of 
character  that  shall  result  in  a  disposition  that  is  whole- 
some and  cheerful  ?  To  this  end  he  should  summon  all 
the  energies  of  mind,  heart,  and  will.  He  should  always 
be  the  master  of  himself,  and  the  divine  goodness  that 
is  in  him,  even  though  it  be  but  a  spark,  should  be 
kindled  into  a  flame,  fusing  every  impulse  and  emotion, 
and  making  it  pliable  and  obedient  to  his  best  judgment. 

10. — Tlie  Selection  of  Teachers. 

Every  superintendent  or  member  of  a  school  board 
in  our  smaller  communities,  who  can  go  out  and  freely 
choose  teachers  for  vacant  places,  feels  sure  that  this  is 
the  ideal  method  of  selection.  It  offers  to  young  teach- 
ers in  the  smaller  communities  the  opportunity  of  ad- 
vancement to  more  desirable  positions.  Thus  they  are 
stimulated  to  excel,  and  to  use  all  available  means  of 
professional  growth.  This  freedom  of  selection  operat- 
ing in  towns  and  villages.  East  and  West,  has  produced 
school-systems  of  the  highest  grade.  There  are  some 
drawbacks  to  this  method. 

1.  Towns  of  limited  financial  ability  sometimes  lose 
their  best  teachers  to  such  an  extent  as  to  cripple  se- 


28  School  Management 

riously  the  schools.  Under  these  conditions  the  super- 
intendent has  a  constant  struggle  to  keep  his  schools  up 
to  a  moderate  level  of  efficiency. 

2.  Young  teachers  of  pleasing  personality  and  promise 
are  often  pushed  on  too  rapidly,  and,  being  ambitious  to 
maintain  themselves,  draw  too  heavily  upon  their  health 
and  vitality.  In  some  instances,  after  gaining  the  de- 
sired position,  they  relax  their  efforts  and  growth  ceases. 

3.  Freedom  of  selection  makes  school  committees 
subject  to  the  importunity  of  local  candidates,  who  may 
or  may  not  be  competent.  The  position  of  teacher  has 
a  dazzling  attractiveness  for  people  who  have  not  at- 
tained marked  success  in  life,  and  who  wish  to  see  their 
children  able  to  live  without  manual  toil.  Girls  who 
have  graduated  from  the  public  schools  are  thought  to 
have  earned  a  right  to  be  teachers,  as  though  a  commu- 
nity w'hich  gives  a  free  education  to  its  childi-en  should 
also  furnish  a  livelihood.  Nothing  in  the  life  of  our 
American  communities  has  created  more  bitter  feeling 
and  antagonism  than  the  appointment  of  teachers.  In 
the  larger  cities,  where  school  affairs  were  managed 
by  ward  committees,  the  situation  became  intolerable. 
Gradually  the  appointment  of  teachers  has  been  hedged 
about  by  rules  and  regulations  that  prevent  the  possi- 
bility of  favoritism  or  political  influence.  The  special 
object  of  treating  this  subject  in  a  work  addressed 
primarily  to  teachers  is  that  all  members  of  the  pro- 
fession are  or  should  be  interested  in  everything  that 
relates  to  the  validity  and  dignity  of  their  calling. 
Working  unitedly  they  may  do  much  to  strengthen  a 
public  sentiment  in  favor  of  those  methods  which  are 
best  for  a  given  community.     In  many  States  this  mat- 


The  Teacher  29 

ter  is  controlled  by  statute,  and  several  of  our  large 
cities  have  recently  obtained  new  charters  which  pro- 
vide for  the  administration  of  the  schools  on  strictly 
business  principles. 

11. — Meiliods  of  Certificating, 

The  new  methods  of  school  administration  are  copied 
largely  from  the  civil  service  rules,  which  have  long 
been  used  successfully  in  Europe,  and  are  now  well 
established  in  a  policy  of  our  national  and  State  gov- 
ernments. The  cardinal  idea  is  merit.  Examinations 
to  determine  the  competency  of  applicants,  and  the 
assignment  of  those  who  are  successful  to  an  eligible 
list,  are  the  chief  working  features  of  the  plan.  Taking 
the  country  as  a  whole,  there  are  several  current  methods 
of  certificating  teachers  which  are  more  or  less  eflSca- 
cious  in  thwarting  personal  influence  and  "  pull."  1.  The 
requirement  of  a  normal  school  diploma.  2.  Gradua- 
tion from  a  high  school  and  a  normal  school  diploma. 
3.  Graduation  from  a  high  school,  and  diploma  from 
a  local  training  school.  4.  Examination  by  a  duly 
constituted  board,  with  an  eligible  list.  5.  Examina- 
tion by  State  or  county  board,  which  may  be  accepted 
by  a  local  committee.  6,  Sundry  regulations  in  the  use 
of  an  eligible  list.  7.  A  fixed  term  of  probation,  upon 
the  result  of  which  the  candidate  may  receive  regular 
appointment. 

Here,  as  in  other  departments,  the  lack  of  a  centralized 
system  permits  much  experimentation  and  variation  in 
practice.  This  will  prove  beneficial  in  the  end,  for  the 
methods  found  to  be  best  will  eventually  become  uni- 


30  Scliool  Management 

versal.  Whatever  tlie  general  method  of  certificating  is, 
it  should  always  be  possible  for  a  school  board  to  go 
out  into  the  open  market  when  positions  of  peculiar 
technical  difiiculty  are  to  be  filled. 


12. — Terms  of  Probation. 

Teachers  who  have  received  the  best  normal  training 
have  still  to  gain  real  professional  ability  by  experience. 
The  first  year,  at  least,  should  bo  a  time  of  probation. 
The  salary  should  be  smaller  and  the  duties  less  exact- 
ing than  afterward.  In  college  teaching,  the  young 
person  must  needs  have  several  years  as  assistant  tutor 
and  instructor  before  he  is  eligible  to  the  position  of 
assistant  professor.  The  beginner  in  a  primary,  gi-am- 
mar,  or  high  school  should  not  give  his  time  grudgingly 
to  this  preparatory  w^ork.  He  will  wisely  make  the 
most  careful  preparation  of  the  lessons  he  is  to  teach, 
and  will  observe  the  work  of  the  best  teachers  as  closely 
as  possible.  He  will  carefully  measure  himself  in  his 
work ;  he  will  solicit  criticism  from  the  principal  and 
superintendent ;  he  will  establish  pleasant  relations 
with  his  pupils;  in  short,  leave  no  stone  untuiTied  in 
doing  his  work  thoroughly  and  well.  If  this  first  year 
of  teaching,  difficult  and  trying  though  it  may  be, 
brings  him  out  victorious  at  the  end,  he  will  enter  upon 
his  second  year  with  a  confidence  and  satisfaction  which 
could  have  been  found  in  no  other  way. 

"We  have  thus  enumerated  some  of  the  qualities 
which  the  teacher  should  possess  and  which  he  should 
try  to  cultivate  during  his  professional  career.  "We 
have  endeavored  to  suggest  that  these  qualities  which 


The  Teacher  31 

enter  into  temperament  and  character  are  not  fixed 
quantities.  They  are  susceptible  to  change  and  devel- 
opment under  favoring  conditions  whenever  there  is  in- 
telligent purpose  and  persistency.  AYhat  has  been  said 
along  this  line  as  well  as  regarding  the  conditions  ud- 
der which  the  teacher  enters  the  profession  is  prelim- 
inary to  a  consideration  of  the  means  of  growth  open  to 
the  teacher,  which  will  be  treated  in  the  following 
chapter. 

TOPICAL  REVIEW 

1.  The  influence  of  personality. 

2.  Ways  of  preserving  health. 

3.  Activities  outside  of  the  school. 

4.  Desirable  mental  and  moral  traits. 

5.  The  teacher  as  a  social  factor. 

6.  Can  temperament  be  changed  ? 

7.  Why  should  teachers  be  carefully  selected  ? 

8.  Some  ways  of  entering  the  profession. 


CHAPTER  ni 
THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  TEACHER 

Geowth  is  the  necessary  attendant  of  life.  When  a 
plant  stops  growing  it  begins  to  die.  It  is  doubtful  if 
there  is  in  the  life  of  any  organism  a  period  when  it  is 
absolutely  stationary.  We  cannot  always  tell  by  look- 
ing at  it  whether  it  is  still  growing,  or  has  turned  the 
point  of  its  highest  develoj^ment  and  commenced  its 
career  of  decadence.  But  we  know  that  the  period 
which  marks  the  divide  has  no  appreciable  magni- 
tude. 

The  human  organism,  in  spite  of  all  caution  and  care, 
passes  through  the  same  cycle  of  development  and  de- 
cay. It  is  clear  also  that  the  mind  is  so  wedded  to  the 
body  as  to  make  it  a  dependent  subject.  Whenever 
the  body  is  impaired  the  mind  suffers  with  it.  There 
are,  however,  two  fundamental  truths  which  offer  en- 
couragement to  all  who  cherish  life,  and  especially  the 
life  of  the  intellect :  First,  every  individual,  by  obeying 
the  laws  of  health,  can  measurably  facilitate  growth,  in- 
crease his  potentiality,  and  postpone  the  hour  when  de- 
terioration begins.  Secondly,  he  can  give  such  suprem- 
acy to  mind,  conscience,  and  will  as  to  make  the  soul,  to 
a  good  degree,  defiant  of  bodily  ailments,  and  keep  con- 
stantly growing  as  long  as  life  lasts. 

These  truths,  so  rich  in  value  to  all  people,  are  espe- 

33 


The  Growth  of  the  Teacher  33 

cially  valuable  to  teachers.  How  then,  let  us  ask,  can 
teachers  make  a  steady  increase  of  mental  and  spiritual 
power  ? 

1. —  Cultivate  the  Social  lAfe. 

The  teacher  needs  to  know  human  life  in  the  con- 
crete. He  needs  to  enter  into  sympathy  with  all  kinds 
of  people.  If  he  visits  the  homes  of  his  pupils  he  is 
likely  to  know  a  variety  of  persons,  and  the  acquaint- 
ances thus  made  will  serve  more  than  one  purpose.  By 
knowing  parents  he  can  the  more  readily  influence  their 
children.  His  acquaintance  tends  to  give  him  a  recog- 
nized place  in  the  community,  makes  him  familiar  with 
his  environment,  and  furnishes  him  needed  local  data 
for  his  work. 

Moreover,  the  teacher  needs  that  particular  kind  of 
stimulus  that  is  implied  in  the  term  "  going  into  soci- 
ety." The  teacher  usually  needs  cultivation  on  the 
human  side.  He  knows  more  of  books  than  of  people. 
In  some  circles  he  is  apt  to  be  awkward  and  ill  at  ease. 
This  is  soon  overcome  by  experience,  and  the  ability  to 
move  among  people  with  grace  and  dignity  is  an  accom- 
plishment not  to  be  despised.  Social  life  in  the  best 
sense  is  a  good  tonic  for  the  mind,  an  antidote  to 
morbidness,  broadens  one's  interests,  and  makes  him 
more  sane  and  companionable. 

The  clannishness  of  some  teachers  is  fatal  to  their  best 
growth.  They  have  an  idea  that  by  reason  of  their 
calling  they  are  discounted  in  social  circles.  This  has 
been  more  or  less  true  in  the  past,  but  is  seldom  so  to- 
day. The  teacher  owe?  it  to  his  profession  to  esteem 
himself  as  fit  for  any  society.     Every  time  he  worthily 


34  School  Management 

represents  his  profession  lie  is  contributing  something 
to  its  repute  and  standing. 

2. — SeeJc  Dcsirahle  Friendships. 

Over  and  above  Avliat  lias  been  said  about  acquaint- 
ance with  common  people,  and  conventional  social 
intercourse,  the  teacher  particularly  needs  those  close, 
intimate  friendshij)S  which,  to  the  young  at  least,  are 
among  the  most  significant  means  of  j)ersonal  growth. 
The  teacher  must  occasionally  throw  off  restraint  and 
lapse  into  a  sort  of  cliildlike  freedom.  At  such  times 
he  needs  the  attrition  of  kindred  spirits.  It  is  often 
better  if  the  intimate  friend  pui'sues  another  calling 
and  has  diverse  interests.  Thus  we  learn  many  facts 
quite  outside  of  our  own  experience,  and  our  thoughts 
are  turned  into  new  and  fresh  channels.  Our  pedantry 
and  conceit  are  properly  corrected,  and  we  gain  fresh 
courage  and  condition  for  our  work  by  learning  what  is 
being  achieved  in  other  departments  of  effort.  One 
cannot  have  many  intimate  friends.  They  should  be 
carefully  chosen,  and  their  confidence  and  sympathy, 
when  once  secured,  should  be  guarded  as  a  peculiar  and 
precious  possession.  In  these  rare  and  exceptional 
friendships  the  deeper  feelings  and  aspirations  find  ex- 
pression, and  the  best  that  is  in  us  is  brought  out  and 
made  to  do  us  service. 

3. — Read  Mamj  Books. 

"  Reading,"  said  Lord  Bacon,  "  maketli  a  full  man.** 
Perhaps  if  he  were  living  to-day  he  would  say  good  read- 
ing, for  the  range  of  choice  is  much  greater  than  it  was, 


The  Growth  of  the  Teacher  35 

and  the  danger  of  dissipation  is  increased.  As  the  ex- 
perience of  the  race  is  preserved  to  us  in  books,  the 
teacher,  for  the  sake  of  knowledge  and  professional 
power,  must  read  widely. 

1.  The  subject-matter  of  teaching  is  ever  broadening 
and  changing,  so  that  the  teacher  must  do  a  good  deal 
of  reading  on  the  informational  side.  His  knowledge 
of  the  subject  he  teaches  should  be  far  beyond  that  of 
the  pupil.  Nothing  is  more  pitiable  and  unprofessional 
than  the  instructor  Avho  is  contented  to  know  simply 
what  ho  has  to  teach.  There  are  now  great  modern 
works  in  geography,  history,  and  science,  which  con- 
stitute a  treasure-house  to  any  teacher  who  has  access 
to  them. 

2.  Next  in  importance  is  that  professional  reading 
which  furnishes  a  broad  view  of  educational  history  and 
ideals.  Properly  speaking,  the  history  of  education  com- 
prises the  story  of  human  progress.  It  also  presents  a 
record  of  the  great  educational  leaders,  who,  far  in  ad- 
vance of  their  time,  have  been  centres  of  influence  and 
light  through  the  centuries.  Neither  general  history 
nor  the  theories  of  the  reformers  can  be  safely  ignored. 
It  is  not  unusual  to  hear  some  rising  pedagogue  ex- 
ploiting ideas  which  were  preached  by  Eabelais,  Mon- 
taigne, Comenius,  or  Rousseau.  A  good  knowledge  of 
educational  history  gives  one  a  deeper  respect  for  the 
past  and  makes  him  more  modest  and  more  teachable. 

3.  The  growing  teacher  will  read  psychology,  particu- 
larly as  it  reveals  the  nature  of  mind  and  is  applicable 
to  methods  of  instruction.  No  teacher,  for  instance, 
can  afford  to  be  without  Professor  James's  "  Talks  on 
Psychology,  and  Life's  Ideals."      Hand  in  hand  with 


36  School  Management 

Bucli  reading  comes  the  study  of  individual  children, 
and  a  growing  recognition  of  the  need  of  adaptation  and 
individual  treatment. 

4.  The  general  literature  of  our  time  is  not  likely  to 
be  neglected,  for  it  is  quite  disconcerting  and  inconven- 
ient to  be  ignorant  of  what  is  produced  in  this  field. 
There  is  even  some  danger,  with  the  wealth  of  fiction 
which  now  crowds  our  library  shelves,  to  say  nothing  of 
history,  travel,  or  sociology,  that  general  reading  may 
compete  too  sharply  with  that  of  a  professional  sort. 
It  is  not  wise,  however,  to  draw  too  sharp  a  line  be- 
tween professional  and  general  reading.  The  treatment 
of  social  questions  of  the  day  is  largely  educational,  and 
almost  any  study  of  ethical,  social,  or  economic  problems 
contains  educational  elements  which  readily  fit  into  a 
broad  scheme  of  pedagogy.  A  social  settlement  in 
Boston,  New  York,  or  Chicago  is  distinctly  an  educa- 
tional institution.  The  same  may  be  said  of  very  many 
churches.  Some  of  our  great  writers  of  fiction,  like 
Charles  Dickens,  Victor  Hugo,  and  Charles  Eeade,  have 
greatly  enriched  the  literature  of  education.  Dickens's 
"Hard  Times,"  for  instance,  presents  a  plea  for  the  nurt- 
ure of  the  imagination  and  fancy  in  childhood  which 
has  never  been  surpassed.  So  it  can  be  said  with  truth 
that  pedagogy  cannot  be  separated  from  human  history 
and  human  experience  any  more  than  religion  can  be 
separated  from  life. 

5.  The  teacher  must  be  informed  in  current  history  as 
presented  in  newspapers  and  magazines.  It  seems  only 
just  to  say  that  such  reading  is  of  less  account  than  any 
other,  and  should  be  incidental  and  restricted.  Nothing 
can  be  more  debilitating  for  the  mind  than  to  absorb  the 


The  Growth  of  the  Teacher  37 

trashy  contents  of  some  of  these  publications.  Journals 
and  magazines  render  a  great  service  in  bringing  to  us 
the  raw  materials  of  information.  It  is  possible  to  be- 
come enslaved  to  this  kind  of  literature  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  arrest  that  higher  development  which  a  better 
class  of  reading  gives. 

Enough  has  been  said  to  enforce  the  idea  that  a 
teacher's  reading  should  by  no  means  be  narrow,  but 
should  be  selected  from  all  fields  of  good  literature,  giv- 
ing, of  course,  special  emphasis  to  those  books  and 
articles  which  have  to  do  with  methods  of  teaching, 
educating,  and  uplifting  the  young.  To  illustrate  more 
clearly  what  is  meant  by  a  broad  selection  the  following 
list  of  ten  books  is  given.  Each  one  is  a  type  of  the 
best  material  to  be  found  in  the  particular  field  which  it 
represents. 

The  Growth  of  the  Brain.     Donaldson. 

Talks  to  Teachers,  and  Life's  Ideals.     James. 

Apperception.     Lange. 

History  of  Pedagogy.     Co7npaijre. 

Illustrations  of  Universal  Progress.     Spencer, 

School  and  Society.     Dewey. 

Hard  Times.     Dickens. 

Lectures  on  Teachiug.     Fitch. 

General  Method.     Mc3Iurr7j. 

School  Hygiene.     Shaw. 

V   4. —  Visit  the  Best  Schools. 

Here  we  have  a  practical  means  of  professional 
growth  which  is  too  often  neglected.  School  oflicials 
forget  that  an  entire  school  may  often  be  closed,  and  the 


38  School  Management 

teacher  sent  to  visit  other  schools,  with  very  little  loss 
so  far  as  the  pupils  are  coucerned.  Quality  is  better 
than  quantity,  and  teachers  frequently  return  from  such 
visits  with  renewed  courage  and  enterprise,  and  the 
school  is  at  once  a  better  school.  Some  foolish  and 
undesirable  things  occur  when  teachers  visit  other 
schools,  and  a  few  suggestions  relative  to  those  who  re- 
ceive visitors  as  well  as  those  who  visit  are  in  order. 

1.  Principals  and  teachers  who  entertain  visiting 
teachers  should  let  all  the  affairs  of  the  school  move  on 
in  their  regular  way.  The  visitor  does  not  wish  to  see 
an  exhibition  of  unusual  and  special  exercises,  but 
rather  the  every-day  work.  Do  not,  therefore,  change 
the  programme  unless  requested  to  do  so  by  the  super- 
intendent or  principal,  and  he,  if  wise,  will  make  this 
request  only  in  rare  instances. 

2.  Do  not  ask  the  visitor  to  examine  an  enormous 
mass  of  "wi'itten  papers.  A  few  typical  papers  should 
always  be  at  hand  for  visitors  to  see  if  they  choose  to  do 
so.  Not  wishiug  to  oflend  they  will  insjiect  a  large 
number,  but  it  is  a  thankless  task,  and  is  not  what  they 
came  for.  The  real  object  of  interest  to  the  visitor  is 
the  pupils ;  the  manner  in  which  they  study  and  recite ; 
the  kind  of  co-operation  existing  between  them  and 
their  teachers  ;  the  degree  of  promptness  and  despatch 
with  which  the  work  is  carried  on  ;  the  methods  and  de- 
vices used  ;  and  the  general  deportment  of  the  school. 

3.  Another  mistake  is  to  hurry  visitors  from  room  to 
room,  and  from  one  attraction  to  another,  not  giving 
them  the  opportunity  to  see  anything  thoughtfully  or 
thoroughly. 

4.  It   is  a  bad  practice   to   send   word  through  the 


The  Groivth  of  the  Teacher  30 

school  that  visitors  have  arrived  and  are  to  make  the 
rounds.  It  is  the  fii'st  step  toward  making  a  show  of 
the  school,  Avhich  too  easily  affects  teachers  and  pupils. 

5.  The  practice  of  calling  only  on  the  brightest  pupils 
when  visitors  are  present  is  vicious,  for  it  is  too  well 
understood  by  pupils,  and  gives  them  an  opinion  of  the 
teacher  which  he  cannot  afford  to  have  them  hold. 

Those  who  visit  need  also  to  avoid  a  few  mistakes. 

1.  If  possible  they  should  arrive  in  time  to  see  the 
school  open,  and  should  remain  during  the  entire  ses- 
sion. 

2.  They  should  pass  quietly  from  room  to  room 
without  asking  for  introductions. 

3.  Ask  no  questions  while  recitations  are  in  progress, 
but  make  notes  and  seek  information  either  at  recess  or 
at  the  close  of  school. 

4.  See  everything.  Count  nothiug  of  small  impor- 
tance. While  visitiug  another  school  a  teacher  is  really 
looking  in  a  mirror.  He  will,  perchance,  see  some  things 
that  he  will  wish  to  avoid  in  the  futm-e — or,  in  other 
words,  he  will  become  conscious  of  his  own  faults. 

5.  Do  not  go  home  and  speak  disparagingly  of  what 
you  have  seen.  If  called  uj^on  to  report  your  visit  do 
it  with  such  fairness  as  to  leave  no  stigma  upon  the 
teacher  concerned.  Be  sure  that  if  you  have  seen 
nothing  to  commend  there  is  some  fault  in  yourself. 

6.  It  is  well  to  visit  other  grades  than  your  own. 
The  kiudergartner  should  observe  carefully  the  develop- 
ment of  the  work  in  the  primary  grades.  Every  pri- 
mary teacher,  on  the  other  hand,  should  observe  the 
kindergarten  as  well  as  the  work  which  follows  and 
precedes  her  own.     Grammar  and  high  school  teachers 


40  School  Management 

may  profitably  visit  any  class  where  good  work  is  being 
done. 

Young,  inexperienced  instructors  in  college,  who 
probably  are  the  poorest  teachers  extant,  lose  an  oppor- 
tunity and  do  an  injustice  to  themselves  and  their  stu- 
dents if  they  fail  to  stud}^  the  methods  used  in  the  best 
secondary  schools. 

Educators  and  teachers  of  all  grades  may  learn  much 
by  visiting  schools  for  defective  children ;  institutions 
for  the  care  of  the  deaf,  dumb,  and  blind  ;  reformatories 
like  those  at  Elmira,  Concord,  and  Sherburn,  Mass. ; 
industrial  schools  for  backward  peoples,  like  Hampton, 
Tuskegee,  and  Carlisle  ;  as  well  as  various  trade-schools, 
technical  schools,  and  schools  of  applied  art. 

In  an  experience  covering  thirty  years  of  school 
supervision  the  writer  has  noticed  that  many  teachers 
are  contented  to  go  on  year  after  year  without  visiting 
other  schools.  As  a  rule  their  work  is  not  of  the 
highest  order.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  superin- 
tendents and  principals  must  organize  a  scheme  of 
regular  visitation.  Every  teacher  should  have  at  least 
two  days  in  each  year  for  this  purpose,  and,  when  the 
vacation  permits  it,  he  should  be  expected  to  devote 
some  small  fraction  of  his  time  in  the  same  way.  Re- 
ports made  at  a  teachers' meeting  of  what  has  been  seen 
during  such  visits  are  an  important  feature  of  the  plan. 

5. — Institutes  and  Conventions. 

Normal  institutes  have  been  a  decided  factor  in  the 
development  of  the  American  teacher.  During  that 
period  when   normal   schools   were    largely  academic 


The  Growth  of  the  Teacher  41 

in  their  character,  and  when  a  very  large  percentage  of 
teachers  received  no  professional  training,  the  State 
and  county  institute,  continuing  for  several  days,  at- 
tendance upon  which  was  required,  has  been  of  untold 
value.  If  the  time  comes  when,  as  in  Germany,  all 
teachers  are  required  to  have  preliminary  training  in 
normal  schools,  the  institute  will  become  of  less  ac- 
count, but  even  then  there  will  be  a  place  for  such  con- 
vocations. The  opportunity  for  mutual  acquaintance,  the 
inspiration  derived  from  the  eloquent  instructors,  and 
the  satisfaction  that  comes  from  knowing  and  hearing 
those  accounted  as  leaders,  will  always  make  the  in- 
stitute a  means  of  improving  schools. 

The  great  conventions  which  are  held  by  nearly  every 
State  and  the  National  Education  Association  have  also 
contributed  their  part  to  educational  progress.  Teach- 
ers from  distant  portions  of  the  United  States  who  at- 
tended the  great  convention  in  Boston,  in  1903,  re- 
returned  to  their  homes  with  a  new  sense  of  pride  and 
dignity,  and  with  many  impressions  of  New  England 
life  and  achievement  which  Avill  be  a  pleasant  memory 
in  their  future  work.  It  is  no  reflection  upon  Boston, 
or  upon  her  people,  to  say  that  the  schools  of  that  city 
will  reap  a  considerable  benefit  through  the  awakened 
interest  of  the  teachers,  who,  by  their  generous  hos- 
pitality and  cordial  greeting  to  the  teachers  of  the 
country,  did  so  much  to  make  the  convention  a  success. 
Many  helpful  addresses  were  heard  with  interest,  but 
they  did  not  constitute  the  most  valuable  part  of  the 
programme.  There  is  one  caution  to  be  observed  by 
those  who  attend  meetings  of  an  insinrational  character. 
Speakers  often  go  to  extremes  in  emphasizing  the  par- 


42  School  Management 

ticular  side  of  a  subject  wbich  they  are  treating.  It 
sometimes  happens  that  several  people  take  opposite 
points  of  view.  Extreme  statements  are  made,  and 
one's  credulity  is  often  taxed  severely  in  trying  to  ac- 
cept what  is  urged.  All  this  requires  that  teachers 
should  weigh  evidence  carefully,  and  reserve  judgment 
on  questions  not  clear.  Such  discussions  enlarge  one's 
horizon  and  extend  the  knowledge  of  the  subject,  but 
should  not  lead  to  hasty  conclusions.  It  has  been  well 
said  that  it  is  better  to  know  less  than  too  much  of  what 
is  untrue. 

6. — Teachers'  Meetings. 

In  all  large  schools  and  systems  of  schools  the  teach- 
ers' meeting  is  often  the  key  to  freedom  and  progress. 
It  is  as  vital  to  the  welfare  of  the  school  as  the  Sunday 
service  is  to  that  of  the  church.  It  often  serves  a  pur- 
pose not  unlike  that  of  a  consultation  of  physicians,  in- 
asmuch as  special  cases  of  inaptness  and  misconduct, 
which  baffle  the  individual  teacher,  are  successfully 
diagnosed  through  the  wisdom  of  several.  There  are 
two  distinct  kinds  of  teachers'  meetings.  One  includes 
all  in  the  system,  and  its  purpose  is  to  develop  com- 
mon aims  and  ideals,  and  secure  perfect  understanding 
touching  the  practical  work  to  be  accomplished.  Such 
a  meeting  may  be  conducted  in  an  infinite  number  of 
ways,  and  still  accomplish  its  purpose.  In  this,  as  in 
all  other  meetings,  let  there  be  informality  and  freedom. 
An  ordinary  class-room  is  not  a  good  place  in  which  to 
assemble.  A  room  furnished  with  loose  chairs,  so  that 
all  can  group  around  the  leader  in  a  social  way,  is  far 
better.     Questions  or  suggestions  should  always  be  in 


The  Growth  of  the  Teacher  43 

order  at  every  point.  Even  if  the  superintendent  or  the 
principal  is  lecturing  he  does  not  wish  to  pose  as  an 
oracle,  or  to  deliver  an  address  so  polished  that  it  slips 
through  the  minds  of  his  hearers  -without  having  made 
any  definite  impression.  The  true  method  of  the 
teachers'  meeting  is  that  of  conference.  The  subject 
should  be  announced  in  advance,  and  in  many  instances 
a  series  of  meetings  would  be  required  in  which  the  in- 
terest and  discussion  should  be  continuous  and  j^rogres- 
sive.  Some  outside  reading  should  be  suggested,  and 
brief,  definite  reports  from  persons  specially  designated 
are  an  advantage.  These  are  some  of  the  topics  which 
have  been  found  fruitful  at  such  meetings : 

Evolution  in  its  relation  to  education. 

Sense  and  motor  activity. 

Culture  of  the  feelings  and  imagination. 

The  doctrine  of  interest. 

Apperception. 

The  five  formal  steps  of  education. 

The  hygiene  of  study  and  fatigue. 

How  to  train  pupils  to  study. 

Amount  and  kinds  of  home-work. 

School  housekeeping. 

Self-government  :  Its  possibilities  and  limits. 

An  occasional  lecturer  from  outside  is^  welcome 
feature,  but  for  the  most  part  such  meetlfigs  Should  be 
carried  on  by  home  talent.  '  ^ 

These  general  meetings  are  often  held  monthly. 
They  serve  to  develop  unity,  and  give  some  direction 
to  the  professional  study  and  thought  of  the  teachers. 
It  is  better  that  such  meetings  be  held  in  the  afternoon 
at  the  close  of  school.     This  is  usually  more  agreeable 


44  School  Management 

to  teachers  than  to  be  called  together  on  Saturday. 
The  meetings  should  not  continue  for  more  than  an 
hour.  Everything  unnecessary  and  trivial  should  be 
omitted,  and  there  should  be  the  most  earnest  concen- 
tration on  the  subject  in  hand.  Frequent  violations  of 
this  rule  make  many  teachers'  meetings  a  dreary  waste 
of  time  and  distasteful  to  all  concerned. 

An  afternoon  tea  at  the  close  of  the  meeting  facili- 
tates acquaintance  and  is  always  enjoyed.  This  feature 
becomes  still  pleasanter  when,  in  succession  during  the 
year,  several  ladies  and  gentlemen  in  the  community  are 
invited  to  be  present  and  make  the  acquaintance  of  the 
teachers.  This  plan  has  been  known  to  result  in  many 
pleasant  friendships  between  teachers  and  citizens,  and 
the  opening  of  the  homes  to  teachers. 

Another  class  of  meetings  is  that  for  teachers  of  a 
grade,  or  for  a  group  of  those  teaching  the  same  subject, 
as,  for  example,  in  the  high  school.  Here  there  should  be 
even  greater  informality  and  indi^'idual  initiative.  The 
superintendent  or  priucijial  may  wisely  let  some  mem- 
ber of  the  grade  or  group  conduct  the  meeting  while  he 
becomes  a  listener,  taking  part  as  opportunity  may 
offer.  This  is  the  time  for  considering,  step  by  step, 
the  several  parts  of  the  curriculum,  in  respect  of  ma- 
terial, and  the  correlation  of  one  subject  with  another. 
This  study  should  be  intensive  and  thorough.  Discus- 
sion should  not  be  checked  imtil  all  possible  light  has 
been  broiight  to  bear  and  some  definite  conclusions  are 
reached  and  formulated.  Methods  of  teaching  with 
illustrated  lessons,  teaching  plans,  devices,  and  illustra- 
tive material  may  all  be  brought  into  these  meetings. 
Something   is   accomplished   by   having   the   teachers 


The  Growth  of  the  Teacher  45 

bring  into  each  meeting  some  specimens  of  the  work  of 
their  pupils. 

The  special  teachers  of  music,  art,  physical  training, 
handwork,  or  nature  study  should  find  in  the  grade 
meeting  opportunity  for  explaining  their  plans  and  se- 
curing intelligent  co-operation.  Frank  suggestion  and 
criticism  on  both  sides  are  far  better  than  misunder- 
standing and  lack  of  cordiality  which  often  creep  into 
a  school  and  mar  the  pleasure  of  working. 

In  short,  these  meetings  should  be  a  clearing-house 
for  all  details  of  management  and  teaching.  Teachers 
will  attend  them  cheerfully,  as  they  furnish  specific 
directions  and  suggestions  for  every  side  of  their  work. 

J' 

7. — Travel  as  a  Means  of  Growth. 

To  visit  the  great  cities  of  our  own  country,  to 
behold  its  great  mountains,  rivers,  prairies,  and  forests 
is  a  means  of  culture  to  any  teacher.  To  cross  the  ocean 
and  see  the  old  countries  and  view  their  treasures  of  art 
and  their  historic  monuments  is  of  still  greater  value. 
He  who  esteems  highly  such  means  of  pleasui'e  and 
growth  does  well  to  practise  economy,  and  lay  aside 
something  for  this  purpose.  Viewed  simply  as  academic 
education,  the  knowledge  of  history,  geography,  art,  and 
human  progress  gained  by  travel  is  far  more  serviceable 
than  that  learned  from  books.  It  is  real,  and  bears  the 
same  relation  to  what  one  reads  about  such  things  that 
a  great  painting,  glorious  in  color,  bears  to  a  photograph 
or  wood  engraving.  Viewed  from  a  pedagogic  stand- 
point, the  teacher  who  travels  can  teach  with  more  con- 
fidence and  enthusiasm,  and  will  impart  to  his  pupils 


46  School  Management 

somewhat  of  tlie  reality  of  tilings  wliicli  he  himself 
feels.  Moreover,  he  finds  a  new  joy  in  his  work,  and 
can  exert  a  wider  influence  among  his  associates  and 
patrons. 

8. — Freedom  FaciUtates  Growth. 

School  officers  cannot  aflbrd  to  shackle  their  teachers 
or  impose  irksome  rules  and  regulations.  Emancipation 
is  the  order  of  our  time.  To  rise  in  the  morning  and 
feel  that  we  can  give  free  rein  to  our  best  impulses, 
and  that  even  our  dreams  may  be  transmuted  into  real 
achievements,  affords  us  the  keenest  satisfaction  that 
life  can  give.  Under  such  conditions  the  worker,  who- 
soever he  may  be,  becomes  the  artist,  putting  a  little  of 
himself  into  his  daily  task,  giving  it  the  stamp  of  in- 
dividuality which  differentiates  it  from  the  work  of 
everyone  else. 

Red  tape,  precedents,  and  officialism  are  a  kind  of 
dry  rot  in  any  school  system.  As  the  large  majority  of 
teachers  are  women,  who  are  naturally  conscientious, 
yielding,  and  obedient,  the  evil  becomes  still  greater.  All 
the  sources  of  growth  and  culture  we  have  heretofore 
enumerated  are  of  little  consequence  if  the  teacher  must 
always  hear  the  clatter  of  official  machinery.  She  soon 
ceases  to  be  the  artist  and  becomes  simply  an  operative. 
Organization  is  good  and  there  must  be  some  system 
in  every  large  enterprise.  But  as  education  has  to  do 
largely  with  motive,  sentiment,  and  spirit,  the  more 
simplicity  and  directness  there  is  in  requirements,  and 
the  more  freedom  of  individual  judgments,  the  better. 
American  schools  to-day  need  less  of  humdrum  and 
routine  and  more  of  scientific  adaptation  of  means  to 


The  Growth  of  the  Teacher  47 

ends.  It  is  only  through  free,  individual  initiative  that 
the  teacher  can  address  himself  unreservedly  to  the 
child  for  whom  the  school  exists. 


TOPICAL   REVIEW 

1.  The  law  of  growth  and  decay. 

2.  Why  a  teacher  should  seek  society. 

3.  The  value  of  intimate  friends. 

4.  What  should  a  teacher  read,  and  why? 

5.  School  visiting.     What  has  your  experience  shown? 

6.  Institutes  as  a  pedagogic  stimulus. 

7.  Why  do  teachers'  meetings  often  lack  interest? 

8.  The  teacher's  right  to  freedom. 


CHAPTER  IV 
PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS 

The  liealtli  of  the  child  is  always  of  first  account, 
whether  iu  the  home  or  in  the  school.  Conditions  have 
often  been  so  unfavorable  in  the  schools  of  the  past  that 
it  is  a  question  whether  the  value-of  the  formal  educa- 
tion received  compensated  for  the  injury  done  to  the 
health.  During  the  last  century  the  world  has  ad- 
vanced rapidly  toward  a  better  knowledge  of  the  laws 
of  health,  and  in  the  utilization  of  the  discoveries  made 
by  science. 

School  boards  and  teachers  assume  a  grave  responsi- 
bility in  the  care  of  children,  and  the  use  they  make  of 
means  at  their  disposal  to  this  end  is  of  first  considera- 
tion in  school  management.  Not  only  should  teachers 
be  thoughtful  and  intelligent  in  all  matters  of  hygiene 
and  sanitation,  but  they  should  enlist  the  interest  of 
their  pupils  to  the  same  end.  The  ordinary  means 
employed  to  promote  health  and  prevent  disease  are  of 
the  highest  educational  importance,  and  not  beyond  the 
comprehension  of  pupils  in  the  elementary  schools. 
Carefully  prepared  rules  relating  to  contagious  diseases 
and  the  necessary  precautions  to  be  taken  should  be 
distributed  to  all  homes,  and  the  co-operation  of  parents 
should  be  solicited.  A  book  on  the  ph3'sical  nature  of 
the  child,  by  Stewart  H.  Kowe,  contains  in  its  closing 

48 


Physical  Conditions  49 

chapter  a  large  number  of  questions  relating  to  food, 
clothing,  care  of  the  skin,  breathing  exercises,  sleep, 
and  the  miscellaneous  habits  of  children,  which  may 
wisely  be  used  in  calling  the  attention  of  parents  to 
some  of  the  more  common  dangers,  and  as  a  means  of 
educating  the  popular  mind  in  the  more  elementary 
principles  of  hygiene. 

This  is  not  the  place  for  an  exhaustive  treatment  of 
school  construction  and  the  scientific  reasons  for  the  in- 
tricate and  elaborate  provisions  now  made  for  heating, 
ventilating,  and  plumbing  in  school-houses.  Teachers 
are  usually  called  to  w^ork  where  the  conditions  are 
largely  established,  and  even  if  new  buildings  are  to  be 
erected  their  advice  is  too  seldom  sought.  The  chief 
emphasis  here  is  laid  on  the  right  use  of  such  means  as 
are  at  hand  for  conserving  bodily  health  and  comfort  in 
the  school.  At  the  same  time  some  of  the  general  and 
more  practical  considerations  are  given  with  the  hope 
that  they  may  assist  teachers  in  understanding,  and 
helping  their  pupils  to  understand  better,  the  problems 
which  they  have  to  solve. 

1. — TJie  School  Site- and  Grounds. 

The  selection  of  the  school  site  is  a  fair  index  of  the 
wisdom  and  generous  tendencies  of  the  school  board. 
In  growing  towns  and  cities,  as  fast  as  the  areas  of 
future  expansion  are  determined,  tracts  of  land  should 
be  secured  at  low  prices,  large  enough  to  provide  for 
future  school  buildings,  and  for  ample  playgrounds  for 
the  people  of  the  several  neighborhoods.  To  make  the 
school,  as  is  now  so  often  proposed,  a  communit}'  centre, 


50  School  Management 

implies  tliat  playgrounds  are  to  be  used  by  adults  as  well 
as  children.  For  those  people  who  are  confined  the  great- 
er part  of  the  time  in  unhygienic  shops  and  factories, 
the  need  of  out-of-door  diversion  becomes  imperative. 

The  school  should  be  located  on  high  ground,  away 
from  all  objectionable  noises  and  all  unsanitary  condi- 
tions. The  soil  should  be  natural,  dry,  and  such  as  can 
be  easily  drained. 

There  are  at  least  four  features  in  the  ideal  school 
lot :  1.  The  ground  upon  which  the  building  stands. 
2.  Such  open  space  in  front  as  permits  landscape  gar- 
dening sufficient  to  insure  attractive  entrances  and 
approaches  to  the  building.  3.  The  school  garden. 
4.  The  playground.  When  the  school-house  is  already 
established  consideration  can  usually  be  given  to  the 
second  and  third,  and  the  fourth  vs-hen  there  is  sufficient 
space.  There  are  few  school-houses  Avhere  something 
cannot  be  done  to  beautify  its  approaches  by  means  of 
trees,  lawn,  shrubs,  and  flowers,  tastefully  arranged.  If 
the  building  stands,  as  is  often  the  case,  on  one  side  of 
the  lot,  so  that  there  is  considerable  space  on  the  other,  a 
school  garden  can  be  organized  as  well  as  a  playground, 
if  this  is  feasible. 

It  is  not  necessary  here  to  go  into  detail  respecting 
the  method  of  laying  out  the  grounds  or  the  garden. 
Many  articles  have  already  been  written  in  magazines 
and  school  journals,  and  in  nearly  every  community 
there  are  examples  of  good  taste  in  landscape  architect- 
ure which  school  officers  and  teachers  can  study  in 
working  out  the  proper  scheme.  The  principle  of  self- 
activity  should  have  some  influence  in  this  connection. 
For  example,  in  the  development  of  the  school  garden  it 


Phymcal  Conditions  51 

would  be  a  waste  of  opportunity  to  have  all  the  plans 
made  by  the  teacher,  and  simply  permit  the  pupils  to 
obey  directions.  Rather  let  the  school  garden  grow  out 
of  investigations  by  the  pupils  into  the  methods  of  agri- 
culture. Let  them  consult  farmers  and  gardeners  on 
the  best  way  of  growing  different  crops,  and  the  best 
kinds  of  soil  and  fertilizers  to  be  used.  A  reasonable 
degree  of  rivalry  adds  interest  here,  as  in  other  forms  of 
school  work.  Eesults  of  these  inquiries,  with  varying 
degrees  of  success  and  failure,  will  give  real  education, 
and  make  the  school  garden  a  good  type  of  industrial  and 
scientific  training.  The  various  problems  in  arithmetic 
and  science  which  arise  are  excellent  for  the  pupils  to 
solve,  because  they  are  real. 

2. — The  ScJiool  Building. 

School  architecture  has  progressed  rapidly  in  recent 
years.  Certain  principles  are  coming  to  be  recognized 
generally. 

It  is  commonly  agreed  that  the  school-house  should  be 
simple  and,  as  far  as  possible,  expressive  of  the  purpose 
for  which  it  exists.  Occasionally  good  taste  is  violated 
by  too  elaborate  design,  over- ornamentation,  and  in- 
harmonious colors,  but  an  examination  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  prints  of  modern  schools  shows  a  similarity  of 
type  and  an  evident  subordination  of  design  to  utility. 

It  is  agreed,  also,  that  the  buildiug' should  be  jjlanned 
from  within  outward,  the  school-room  being  regarded  as 
the  unit.  When  the  school-rooms  have  been  planned 
and  arranged  with  reference  to  lighting  and  conven- 
ience the  architect  is  less  likely  to  err  in  completing  the 
rest  of  the  scheme. 


52  School  Management 


3. — Tlie  School-Room. 

Much  thought  has  been  given  to  the  form  and  size  of 
the  school-room.  Whatever  may  be  the  character  of  a 
room  where  a  teacher  does  his  work,  he  should  make  a 
careful  study  of  it,  to  see  that  the  best  possible  results 
are  obtained  in  respect  of  lighting,  fresh  air,  conven- 
ience and  good  taste.  Every  teacher  should  know  what 
standards  are  generally  accepted.  It  is  understood 
that  in  cities,  where  space  is  very  expensive,  there  is 
more  crowding  than  under  other  conditions.  A  room 
28  X  32  feet  is  considered  a  good  size  for  any  grade  of 
school.  If,  as  is  desirable,  the  long  side  of  the  room  is 
exposed  to  the  light,  the  rows  of  desks  may  be  so 
placed  as  to  leave  some  vacant  space  in  front  and  on 
the  side  farthest  from  the  windows  for  tables  and  other 
useful  furniture.  A  minimum  height  of  first-story 
rooms  is  13  feet.  As  the  light  is  usually  superior  on 
the  second  floor,  the  height  may  properly  be  12  feet. 
Natural  slate  blackboards  should  be  placed  on  all  wall 
space  not  occupied  by  doors.  These  should  be  from  3^ 
to  4  feet  in  -svadtli.  For  primary  pupils  they  should  be 
placed  2  feet  and  3  inches  from  the  floor.  For  gram- 
mar and  high  school  pupils  from  3  feet  to  3  feet  6 
inches.  These  boards  should  be  closely  fitted  together 
and  cemented.  Cbalk  receivers  should  be  beneath  the 
blackboards.  These  should  have  a  wire  covering  at- 
tached by  hinges  so  that  wlicn  they  are  in  use  no 
dust  may  be  disturbed,  and  they  may  be  conveniently 
cleaned. 

The  floor  of   the  school-room,  as  of  all  parts  of  the 


Physical  Conditions  53 

building,  should  be  of  maple  or  liard  pine,  selected  stock, 
grooved,  and  closely  fitted  to  prevent  cracks  for  the 
accumulation  of  dust.  For  wainscoting,  some  of  the 
best  authorities  recommend  hard  plaster  well  painted 
without  gloss,  to  give  a  hard,  durable  surface. 


4. — Seating. 

The  best  school  furniture  yet  devised  is  the  single, 
adjustable  desk  and  chair.  This  is  constructed  in  vari- 
ous styles,  but  the  differences  in  them  are  not  marked. 
Special  care  should  be  taken  that  the  seat  is  comfoi't- 
able,  properly  supporting  the  back  and  shoulders.  A 
desk  designed  by  the  late  Dr.  Shaw  has  some  advan- 
tages, as  the  top  slips  back  and  forth,  affording  minus 
distance  for  reading  and  plus  distance  for  writing.  It 
has  a  slant  of  15°,  but  may  be  raised  to  a  level  w^hen 
the  nature  of  the  work  requires  it. 

The  seat  should  be  adjusted  so  that,  with  the  feet  of 
the  pupil  on  the  floor,  the  lower  limbs  will  be  directly 
at  right  angles  to  the  thigh,  which  is  level. 

It  is  very  important  that  M'hen  adjustable  furniture 
is  provided  the  adjustments  be  promptly  and  carefully 
made.  The  maker  usually  provides  a  measuring-rod 
and  definite  directions  as  to  its  use.  The  writer  remem- 
bers visiting  a  new  highschool  building  toward  the  end 
of  the  year  when  no  adjustments  had  been  made.  Such 
oversight  is  inexcusable.  It  shows  the  absence  of  care 
for  the  welfare  of  the  pupils. 

In  case  furniture  that  is  not  adjustable  is  used  there 
should  be  at  least  three  sizes  placed  in  rows,  so  that  the 
smaller  pupils  come  in  front.     This  permits  consider- 


54  School  Management 

able  adaptation  to  the  size  of  desks  and  makes  the  room 
present  a  good  appearance. 


5. — Lighting. 

When  the  planning  of  the  building  permits  school- 
rooms oblong  in  shape,  it  is  desirable  that  all  the  light 
should  come  from  one  side,  with  an  arrangement  of 
seats  so  that  the  pupils  get  the  light  from  the  left.  The 
more  completely  that  side  is  filled  with  glass  the  better. 
There  should  be  a  minimum  of  from  one-fourth  to  one- 
fifth  of  the  floor  space.  The  windows  should  have 
square  heads  which  should  reach  to  the  top  of  the  room, 
and  should  extend  to  about  three  and  a  quarter  feet  of 
the  floor.  In  some  cases  iron  mullions  are  used,  thus 
precluding  the  use  of  brick  or  timber  work,  which  ob- 
structs the  light. 

All  kinds  of  inside  blinds  are  objectionable.    Opaque 

shades  of  an  ecru  or  greenish  tint,  running  either  from 

the  top  or  the  bottom,  afibrd  the  best  means  of  control- 

i  ling  the  light.     Authorities  differ  as  to  which  method  is 

1  better.     The  objection  to  having  the  shades  run   from 

I  the  bottom  is  that  teachers  wish  to  have  window-boxes, 

\  and  in  the  care  of  plants  the  shades  become  injured. 

Experience  has  shown  that  shades  attached  at  the  top 

can  be  made  to  serve  every  purpose.     When  the  shades 

are  large  tint  cloth  is  more  durable  than  holland.     In 

dealing  with  old  buildings  where  there  is  insuflicient 

light,  factory  ribbed  glass  in  the  upper  sashes  is  found 

helpful. 

The  tinting  of  the  walls  of  the  school-room  play  an 
important  part,  not  only  in   its  attractiveness,  but   in 


Physical  Conditions  55 

mating  tlie  liglit  agreeable.  The  ceiling  should  be 
white  or  a  light  cream  color.  In  school-rooms  where 
there  is  plenty  of  sunlight  gi-een  tints  arc  most  dura- 
ble. Eooms  having  a  northerly  exposure  are  made  to 
seem  more  home-like  by  being  tinted  in  warmer  colors, 
as  a  yellowish  gray  or  light  terra-cotta. 

6. —  OloaJc-Rooms. 

Cloak-rooms  may  be  placed  either  along  the  corridor 
or  in  separate  rooms  adjacent  to  the  school-rooms.  In 
either  case  thorough  heating  and  ventilation  should  be 
provided.  If  placed  in  the  corridors  they  should  be 
connected  with  the  school -rooms  and  should  be  locked 
when  not  in  use  to  prevent  thieving.  Each  child  should 
have  a  separate  locker  or  cubicle  divided  off  by  parti- 
tions, with  a  shelf  at  the  bottom  for  rubbers,  and  one  at 
the  top  for  lunch-box  or  books.  Corridor  wardrobes 
are  often  partitioned  off  with  wire-mesh  set  in  frames, 
thus  permitting  the  better  circulation  of  air,  and  a  more 
complete  drying  of  clothing  in  damp  weather. 

7. — Corridors. 

The  ideal  type  of  school  building  has  class-rooms 
along  the  sunny  side  with  corridors,  oflBces,  and  other 
rooms  on  the  other  side.  However  large  the  building, 
this  type  in  its  main  features  may  be  preserved.  The 
corridors  should  be  at  least  nine  feet  wide,  and,  in  the 
case  of  large  buildings  containing  several  hundi-ed  pu- 
pils, may  well  be  as  much  as  twelve  feet  in  width.  They 
should  be  well  lighted,  and  the  walls  may  be  tinted  in 
richer  tones  than  are  used  in  the  class-rooms. 


56  Scliool  Management 


8. — Staircases. 

Staircases  should  be  placed  at  either  end  of  the 
building.  There  should  be  no  open  wells.  Each  stair- 
way should  have  at  least  one  platform  or  landing  for 
every  story.  The  risers  should  be  G  to  6^  inches  high, 
and  the  tread  from  10  to  12  inches  wide.  Hand-rails 
should  be  provided  on  either  side,  firmly  bolted  to  the 
walls.  There  should  be  windows  upon  the  landings, 
elevated  at  least  four  feet  from  the  floor.  Staircases 
should  be  either  of  fire-proof  or  slow-burning  construc- 
tion. 

9. — OtJier  Features. 

Doors  leading  to  class-rooms  should  be  made  to  swing 
both  ways  by  means  of  a  spring  check.  Glass  panels 
are  necessary  in  such  doors,  and,  in  short,  are  found  to 
be  convenient  in  doors  of  different  construction.  Any 
means  of  preventing  noise  or  confusion,  like  the  fre- 
quent opening  and  shutting  of  doors,  contributes  to  the 
success  of  the  school. 

When  a  school-house  is  being  designed,  those  who 
are  to  occupy  it  should  insist  upon  economy  in  the 
planning  of  both  basement  and  attic.  A  dry,  well- 
lighted  basement,  if  reasonably  free  from  supporting 
timbers  and  masonry,  and  if  well  warmed  and  venti- 
lated, may  be  put  to  a  variety  of  purposes,  as  play-  and 
lunch-rooms,  manual  training  shops,  and  gymnasiums. 

The  attic  also  may  be  so  free  from  timber  work  as  to 
provide  excellent  rooms  for  domestic  art  and  science, 
clay  work,  and  all  sorts  of  games  and  occupations  suit- 


Physical  Conditions  57 

able  for  young  children,  which  are  becoming  a  promi- 
nent feature  in  school  life. 

The  most  satisfactory  finish  for  a  school  building  is 
oak  or  ash.  White  wood,  however,  if  properly  treated, 
so  that  the  surface  is  perfectly  hard  and  without  polish, 
is  quite  durable,  and  can  easily  be  kept  clean. 

Every  school  building  should  have  a  small  reception- 
room,  neatly  furnished,  where  the  principal  or  teachers 
may  meet  parents  or  other  visitors.  It  is  convenient 
to  have  this  room  adjacent  to  the  school  office.  The 
principal  should  have  communication  with  his  teachers 
either  by  telephones  or  speaking-tubes. 

Before  each  entrance  there  should  be  a  large  steel 
mat,  and  just  inside  the  door  one  or  more  woven  mats, 
both  of  which  the  pupils  should  be  trained  to  use. 

10. — Heating  and  Ventilation, 

This  subject  is  so  vast  and  so  vital  to  the  best  inter- 
ests of  the  school  that  a  separate  treatise  is  needed  for 
the  use  of  those  who  are  to  study  it  carefully.  "  The 
Ventilation  and  Heating  of  School  Buildings"  by 
Morrison,  and  the  treatment  given  by  Kottlemann  and 
Shaw  in  their  several  works  entitled  "  School  Hygiene," 
contain  the  essential  facts. 

The  heating  of  the  school-house  should  be  such  as  to 
secure  uniform  temperature  of  64°  to  70°  Fahrenheit, 
there  being  some  variation  according  to  the  age  of 
the  pupils,  the  younger  children  needing  a  somewhat 
warmer  temperature  than  the  older  ones.  The  ventila- 
tion of  the  school-house  involves  the  removal  of  air  that 
has  become  vitiated  by  breathing,  and  the  iutroduc- 


58  School  Management 

tion  of  pure,  warm  air  in  its  place.  Thus  heating 
auil  veutihitiug  constitute  one  process,  and  this  proc 
ess  requii'es  the  application  of  a  definite  amount  of 
power. 

By  long  experience  and  many  experiments  it  has 
been  found  that  thirty  cubic  feet  of  fresh  air  per  minute 
is  the  minimum  for  each  person.  Many  modern  school 
buildings  now  provide  fifty  cubic  feet  per  minute.  Tak- 
ing the  smaller  quantity,  we  can  readily  see  that  the 
amount  required  for  fifty  pupils  for  one  hour  is  90,000 
cubic  feet,  and,  if  we  take  the  larger  amount  of  fifty  cu- 
bic feet  per  minute,  the  enormous  mass  of  150,000  cu- 
bic feet  of  fresh  air  per  hour  for  every  fifty  pupils.  But 
what  are  we  to  say  in  regard  to  school-rooms  where  not 
more  than  one-half,  one-third,  or  one-fourth  of  the  nec- 
essary amoimt  of  air  is  furnished  ?  Or  where,  because 
of  the  inadequacy  of  the  ventilating  plant,  or  some 
fault  in  its  working,  there  is  little  or  no  change  of  air, 
unless,  perchance,  the  windows  are  opened,  or  the  pu- 
pils sent  out-of-doors.  This  brings  us  face  to  face  with 
two  significant  facts : 

1.  The  inadequate  ventilation  of  a  school-room  under- 
mines the  health  and  leads  the  way  to  many  forms  of 
disease. 

2.  It  is  equally  harmful  in  a  pedagogic  sense,  for  it 
makes  it  impossible  for  teachers  and  pupils  to  do  good 
mental  work.  Let  us  briefly  consider  this  situation  in 
some  of  its  more  common  aspects. 

"  There  are  many  substances,"  says  Morrison,*  "  con- 
stantly passing  into  the  air,  tending  to  make  it  unfit  for 
respiration.     Those  which  more  especially  concern  us 

*  "  The  Vcntihition  and  Heating  of  School  Buildings,"  MorriaoQ. 


Physical  Conditions  59 

in  consideration  of  the  condition  of  our  school-houses 
are  vapors  and  gases  from  the  skin  and  lungs,  princi- 
pally Co.j  and  vapor  of  water,  solid  particles  of  scaly 
epiphelium  from  the  skin,  fibres  of  cotton,  wool,  etc., 
bits  of  hair,  wood,  coal,  chalk-dust,  and  many  other 
things  Avhich  have  a  tendency  to  enter  the  blood  through 
the  delicate  air-cells  in  the  lungs,  if  gaseous,  and  to 
lodge  in  the  air-passages,  or  be  drawn  into  the  lungs,  if 
solid,  there  to  irritate  by  theii'  jDresence,  and  poison  the 
system  by  their  decay." 

There  are  also  many  micro-organisms  in  the  air. 
Kottlemann  *  tells  of  an  instance  where  in  every  cubic 
metre  of  air  there  were  2,000  bacteria  before  school 
began,  and  35,000  at  the  end  of  school  hours. 

In  a  small,  compact  volume  entitled  "  Dust  and  its 
Dangers,"  Dr.  T.  Mitchel  Prudden  treats  this  matter 
exhaustively,  and,  while  showing  that  nature  has  several 
definite  methods  of  preventing  serious  injury  to  the 
human  organism  by  bacteria,  it  is  made  clear  that  too 
great  care  cannot  be  taken  in  providing  air  that  is  free 
from  disease  germs.  Much  trouble  with  the  bronchial 
tubes,  throat,  and  larynx  is  caused  those  who  teach  in 
ill-ventilated  and  dusty  school-rooms. 

Many  of  those  noxious  and  poisonous  elements  which 
find  their  way  into  the  air  of  the  school-room  are  illu- 
sive and  not  easily  measured.  As  the  chief  element  of 
impurity  is  carbonic  acid,  this  is  commonly  taken  as  a 
measure  of  impurity  and  various  tests  are  used  to  deter- 
mine the  amount.  Pure  air  contains  4  volumes  of 
carbonic  acid  gas  in  10,000,  and  8  in  10,000  is  the 
highest  allowed  for  good  sanitation.     Not  long  ago  a 

*  "  School  Hygiene,"  Kottlemann. 


60  School  Management 

State  inspector  in  Massachusetts  ordered  new  ventilation 
apparatus  for  a  new  school  buikling.  According  to  law 
an  appeal  was  made  to  the  local  board  of  health,  who, 
after  a  hearing,  reported  that  the  order  was  unnecessary. 
The  State  examiner  made  tests  of  air  from  each  floor 
with  the  following  results  : 

Air  from  the  first  floor,  where  there  were  thirty-nine 
children,  contained  15  volumes  of  carbonic  acid  in  10,- 
000.  The  air  from  the  second-floor  room,  occupied  by 
forty-four  children,  contained  32  volumes.  That  from 
another  first-floor  room  yielded  36  volumes.  These 
facts  are  the  more  startling  when  we  are  told  that  the 
samples  were  taken  in  November,  the  first  after  the 
windows  had  been  closed  for  ten  minutes,  the  second 
while  the  windows  were  open  four  inches,  and  the  third 
after  the  windows  had  been  closed  for  twenty  minutes. 
It  is  evident  that  in  each  case  the  air  was  unfit  for 
respiration.  It  should  be  kept  in  mind  also  that  people 
assembled  at  any  time,  as  in  church  or  in  school,  are  not 
conscious  of  the  deterioration  of  the  air,  because  it  is 
gradual,  unless  they  pass  out  of  the  room  and  return. 

TOPICAL  REVIEW 

1.  Hygiene  as  a  matter  of  private  and  public  concern. 

2.  The  educational  use  of  school  grounds. 

3.  The  school-room.     Arrangement  of  furniture,  etc. 

4.  Windows  and  shades. 

5.  The  use  of  corridors  and  staircases. 

6.  What  details  make  a  school-house  home-like  ? 

7.  The  relation  of  ventilation  to  respiration. 


CHAPTER  V 
PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS  (Continued) 

1. — Metlwds  of  Heating  and  Ventilation. 

The  large  open  fireplace  used  in  the  one-roomed 
school-house  of  twenty  years  ago  is  conceded  to  have 
afforded  excellent  ventilation.  It  cannot  be  praised  as 
highly  as  a  means  of  heating.  The  air-tight  stove  which 
succeeded  it,  whether  used  in  the  dwelling-house  or  in 
the  school,  had  little  to  commend  it.  Practically  the 
same  air  was  heated  over  and  over.  Many  rural  schools 
still  have  nothing  better  than  this.  When  proper 
thought  is  given  to  the  subject,  however,  the  stove  is 
provided  with  a  jacket  extending  from  the  floor  one- 
half  the  way  to  the  ceiling.  At  the  floor  is  a  register 
with  a  fresh-air  duct  extending  under  the  floor  to  the 
outer  wall  of  the  building.  The  air  thus  enclosed  be- 
tween the  stove  and  its  jacket  passes  up  into  the  room, 
and  fresh  air  is  drawn  in  from  outside  to  take  its  place. 
The  open  draught  of  the  stove  draws  out  the  vitiated  air 
near  the  floor,  thus  creating  circulation.  A  foul-air 
duct  at  the  floor,  connected  with  the  chimney  which  is 
warm,  is  better  for  the  egress  of  bad  air  than  the  stove 
draught. 

In  the  construction  of  rural  schools  of  one  room, 
especially  when  fuel  is  plentiful,  a  fireplace  should  be 

61 


G2  School  Management 

provided  and  used  during  the  spring  and  autumn,  when 
only  a  small  amount  of  heat  is  required. 

In  large  school-houses,  heated  by  steam  or  hot  water, 
both  direct  and  indirect  methods  of  heating  are  used. 
The  first,  which  employs  pipes  or  registers,  may  be 
used  only  to  supplement  indirect  heating.  In  the  cold- 
est weather,  and  at  night,  it  is  an  economical  ijiethod  of 
keeping  up  the  temperature. 

By  the  indirect  method  fresh  air  is  carried  into  the 
building  through  large  ducts,  containing  stacks  of  radi- 
ating surface,  and  directly  into  the  rooms  through  regis- 
ters which  are  usually  placed  near  the  ceiling.  The 
impure  air  is  carried  out  through  a  register  usually 
placed  directly  underneath  the  incoming  air,  by  means 
of  separate  ducts  made  somewhat  larger  than  those  pro- 
vided for  fresh  air.  Thus  a  school-room,  heated  and 
ventilated  in  this  way,  has  a  volume  of  fresh  air  con- 
stantly entering  the  room  and  an  equal  volume  of  im- 
pure air  constantly  j^assing  out. 

A  gravity  system  is  one  where  the  draught  necessary 
for  withdrawing  the  foul  air  is  caused  by  a  heated  chim- 
ney or  duct.  In  every  large  building  this  method  is 
not  adequate  or  reliable,  and  ventilating  fans  are  used 
either  as  a  means  of  forcing  the  fresh  air  into  the  build- 
ing, or  of  drawing  out  the  foul  air,  or  both. 

In  thus  stating  in  the  briefest  manner  possible  some 
of  the  main  facts  connected  with  warming  and  ventilat- 
ing, it  is  assumed  that  teachers  will  study  carefully,  in 
connection  with  their  principal,  the  particular  system 
upon  which  they  have  to  depend.  Ignorance  and  neg- 
lect too  often  prevent  the  successful  working  of  the  ven- 
tilating apparatus,  while  care  and  attention  will  secure 


Physical  Conditions  68 

favorable  results.  Artificially  heated  air  is  usually  too 
dry  and  tends  to  affect  unfavorably  the  membrane  of 
the  mouth,  the  throat,  and  the  lungs.  Various  meth- 
ods have  been  employed  to  humidify  the  air  of  school- 
rooms, none  of  which  is  altogether  satisfactory.  The 
best  plan  is  probably  that  of  discharging  steam,  in  mod- 
erate quantities,  into  the  cold-air  duct.  The  practical 
end  to  be  obtained  is  to  make  the  inside  air  conform  as 
nearly  as  possible  in  respect  to  humidity  to  that  out- 
side, so  that  persons  passing  in  and  out  are  not  subject 
to  too  sudden  changes. 

Even  when  the  building  is  poorly  equipped  for  ven- 
tilation a  great  deal  can  bo  done  by  teachers  to  prevent 
injury  to  health.  Windows  and  doors  may  be  opened 
every  haK  hour  while  the  pupils  engage  in  marching, 
light  games,  or  gymnastics.  Boards,  five  or  six  inches 
in  width,  placed  under  the  windows  are  a  well-known 
device.  Still  better  are  hoods  at  the  top  of  the  win- 
dows, closely  fitting  the  sash,  so  that  when  the  windows 
are  opened  from  the  top  the  air  is  deflected  toward  the 
ceiling,  and  is  gradually  diffused  throughout  the  room 
without  falling  too  directly  on  the  heads  of  the  pupils. 

In  all  this  work  of  securing  pure  air  of  the  proper 
quality  pupils  should  be  asked  to  co-operate  and  should 
assist  the  teacher  in  every  effort  to  secure  the  best  that 
is  possible  from  the  facilities  at  hand.  In  the  high- 
school,  pupils  pursuing  chemistry  and  physics  may  find 
a  variety  of  problems  in  testing  air,  under  various  con- 
ditions, in  respect  to  dryness  and  purity,  the  amount 
received  and  discharged,  and  the  conditions  in  these 
respects  as  affected  by  the  weather  and  prevailing 
winds. 


64  School  Management 


2. — Janitor  Service, 

Under  this  lieading  we  may  include  everything  per- 
taining to  the  care  of  the  building  which  is  beyond  the 
function  of  the  teachers.  In  the  first  place,  the  office 
of  janitor  should  be  given  the  importance  it  deserves. 
He  should  be  a  man  of  intelligence,  courteous  bearing, 
good  habits,  thoroughly  faithful  and  interested  in  his 
work,  with  some  mechanical  abilit}',  and  prompt  and 
energetic  in  responding  to  every  just  call.  He  should 
be  treated  with  respect  by  teachers  and  pupils,  and  some 
effort  should  be  made  to  show  just  appreciation  when 
unusually  good  service  is  given. 

A  superintendent  does  well  to  call  together  his  jani- 
tors from  time  to  time  in  somewhat  the  same  way  that 
he  does  his  teachers,  and  consider  with  them  the  various 
kinds  of  work  they  have  to  perform.  Thej^  are  glad  to 
compare  notes  respecting  their  methods  of  sweeping  and 
cleaning,  and  helpful  suggestions  are  often  made.  The 
chief  advantage  of  such  meetings  is  that  the  service  is 
elevated  and  dignified,  and  so  janitors  come  to  have  in- 
creased pride  in  their  vocation.  Colonel  Waring  suc- 
ceeded in  lifting  the  subject  of  street  cleaning  in  New 
York  City  to  a  plane  of  scientific  and  economic  impor- 
tance, and  in  one  way  and  another  made  all  his  workers 
share  in  the  feeling  that  they  were  responsible  for  the 
lives  and  health  of  the  people  to  a  great  extent.  So  it 
should  be  in  every  school.  No  degradation  or  disre- 
spect should  be  attached  to  a  class  of  manual  toil  which 
is  indispensable  to  health,  to  comfort,  and  the  proper 
care  of  school  property. 

The  janitor  should  be  appointed  upon  the  recommenda- 


Physical  Conditions  65 

tion  of  the  principal  and  should  be  directly  responsible 
to  him.  TliG  principal  is,  of  course,  in  turn  responsi- 
ble for  the  care  of  the  building  to  the  superintendent 
and  school  board.  A  system  which  places  the  janitors 
and  care  of  the  buildings  under  some  other  municipal 
authority  is  vicious  and  should  be  sharply  attacked. 

How  important  an  office  the  janitor  fills  appears  if 
we  enumerate  the  duties  which  properly  belong  to  him. 

1.  He  should  have  entire  charge  of  the  school  build- 
ing and  grounds.  He  should  be  responsible  for  their 
care  at  all  times.  He  should  see  that  everything  is  kept 
in  proper  order,  and  should  promptly  report  to  the  prin- 
cipal all  injuries  to  the  jjroperty  whether  wilful  or  ac- 
cidental. 

2.  All  corridors  and  staircases  need  to  be  swept  daily. 
School-rooms  should  be  swept  at  least  three  times  a 
week,  and  daily  if  circumstances  require  it.  The  jani- 
tor, as  in  ordinary  housekeeping,  should  have  cloths  to 
throw  over  teachers'  desks  and  tables  containing  books 
and  other  apparatus.  The  best  rule  for  sweeping  and 
dusting  is  a  general  one  which  calls  for  a  high  standard 
and  permits  the  janitor  to  use  his  best  judgment.  It 
has  been  found  by  experience  that  a  school-house  is 
much  better  cared  for  Avhen  its  tidiness  becomes  a  mat- 
ter of  personal  pride  with  the  janitor. 

3.  It  is  desirable  that  corridors,  staircases,  and  class- 
rooms be  washed  as  often  as  once  a  week.  A  few  years 
ago,  in  some  cities,  the  washing  of  the  school-room  floors 
was  unheard  of.  Sanitary  science,  working  through 
health  boards,  has  brought  about  a  marked  change  in 
this  direction,  and  in  some  towns  nnd  cities  the  house- 
keeping in  the   schools  is   equal  to   that  in  the   best 


66  School  Management 

homes.  Windows,  as  a  rule,  need  to  be  washed  once  a 
month.  Furniture  of  various  kinds,  including  pupils' 
desks  and  chairs,  should  be  wiped  over  with  sulpho- 
napthol,  or  some  other  authorized  antiseptic,  at  least 
twice  a  year,  and  of  tener  where  contagious  diseases  are 
prevalent.  Banisters,  hand-rails,  and  door-knobs  should 
be  cleaned  weekly  in  the  same  way. 

Crude  oil,  which  is  comparatively  inexpensive,  may 
be  used  for  this  purpose.  Furniture  should  be  wiped 
with  a  dry  cloth  after  oil  has  been  applied.  Just  before 
the  summer  vacation,  all  iron  and  other  metal  work 
should  be  wiped  with  the  same  material. 

Crude  oil  has  also  been  found  excellent  for  the  floors. 
By  introducing  a  small  amount  of  burnt  umber,  the  color 
of  the  floors  may  be  darkened  to  match  the  wainscot- 
ing. A  small  quantity  of  the  oil  should  be  applied  to 
the  floor  by  means  of  a  mop,  and  afterward  the  floor 
should  be  thoroughly  wiped  with  a  dry  mop  or  cloth. 
If  the  floors  are  thus  treated  once  or  twice  each  term, 
there  is  comparatively  little  dust,  and  as  little  injury  to 
clothing  as  from  any  of  the  floor  preparations  now  on 
the  market. 

Emphasis  is  given  to  this  side  of  the  janitor's  work 
because  dust  has  been  an  ever-present  and  insidious 
form  of  evil  in  the  school-house,  producing  distress  and 
disease.  It  has  been  discovered  within  the  last  few 
years  that  many  of  the  infectious  diseases,  such  as  con- 
sumption, typhoid  fever,  Asiatic  cholera,  and  diphtheria, 
are  caused  by  bacteria  which  live  and  float  in  the  air. 
In  order  to  overcome  the  pestilential  influence  of  germ- 
bearing  dust  in  the  school,  it  is  found  wise,  in  the  care 
of  large  buildings,  to  provide  the  janitor  with  one  or 


Physical  Conditions  67 

more  assistants  whose  whole  time  is  spent  in  scrubbing 
and  cleaning. 

4.  The  janitor  must  usually  take  charge  of  the  heat- 
ing plant  and  give  special  attention  to  the  heating  and 
ventilating  of  the  several  rooms.  He  has  to  visit  the 
different  rooms  as  occasion  requires  and  see  to  the 
temperature,  and  that  all  fresh-air  ducts  and  inlets  are 
perfectly  clean  and  wholesome.  He  must  also  regularly 
inspect  the  sanitaries,  and  use  scrupulous  care  in  keep- 
ing them  as  clean  and  odorless  as  possible. 

5.  The  janitor  must  have  charge  of  the  yard  and 
grounds,  and,  with  such  assistance  as  may  be  furnished 
him  by  pupils  and  others,  must  care  for  shrubs,  flowers, 
and  grass.  On  public  occasions  he  should  aid  in  every 
possible  way  in  making  visitors  welcome  and  comfort- 
able. 

Thus  it  can  be  seen  that  a  wise  and  efficient  janitor 
is  hardly  second  to  the  principal  in  promoting  the 
health  and  welfare  of  all  in  the  school.  A  high  grade 
of  talent  is  needed  for  such  positions.  The  compensa- 
tion should  be  such  as  to  make  the  incumbent  self-re- 
specting, and  enable  him  to  support  a  family  in  comfort. 

3. — General  Sanitation  and  Hygiene. 

This  is  an  appropriate  time  to  mention  some  of  the 
ways  in  which  the  school  may  conserve  health  by  giving 
pupils  practical  experience  in  matters  of  hygiene. 

1.  As  a  nature  lesson  pupils  should  be  instructed  in 
water  supply,  and  the  importance  of  drinking  only  that 
which  is  pure.  Wells  which  have  been  closed  and  not 
emptied  for  a  long  time  are  full  of  danger.     Children 


68  Scliool  Management    /       a, 

should  be  frequently  cautioned  in  regard  to  when  and 
where  they  should  drink.  Individual  drinking-cups  are 
indispensable  if  the  best  care  is  to  be  used. 

2.  It  should  be  remembered  that  in  many  schools,  as 
in  many  homes,  the  lighting  is  bad,  and  care  should  be 
taken  in  the  use  of  books  not  to  strain  the  eyes.  Pupils 
should  be  trained  to  sit  and  hold  the  book  at  a  proper 
distance  from  the  eye  so  the  light  will  come  from  the 
left.  Every  teacher  should  use  the  ordinary  test-cards, 
containing  different  sizes  of  print,  to  discover  any  cases 
of  near-sightedness,  or  of  eyesight  otherwise  defective, 
that  may  happen  to  be  in  the  class.  Such  cases  should 
be  reported  promptly  to  parents,  who  should  be  urged 
to  consult  an  oculist.  Such  children  should  also  be 
seated  as  near  the  front  as  possible. 

Simple  tests  of  hearing  made  by  holding  a  watch  at 
different  distances  will  enable  the  teacher  to  easily  detect 
any  defect  that  there  may  be  in  this  sense. 

The  general  use  of  free  books  and  pencils  has  tended 
to  increase  the  danger  of  infection.  It  is  desirable  that 
pupils  should  use  their  own  or  the  same  pencils.  Phy- 
sicians recommend  that  both  books  and  pencils  be  dis- 
infected from  time  to  time,  by  the  use  of  a  light  recepta- 
cle in  which  they  are  subjected  to  some  disinfectant,  as 
formaline  vapor. 

While  the  general  use  of  blackboards  is  valuable  in 
the  school  there  is  no  reason  why  a  large  portion  of 
the  written  work  should  not  be  done  upon  paper,  thus 
avoiding  to  a  large  extent  the  chalk-dust,  which  is  espe- 
cially injurious  to  sensitive  throats  and  lungs. 

The  use  of  slates  is  accompanied  by  objectionable 
and  filthy  habits,  and  the  fact  that  they  are  being  rap- 


Physical  Conditions  69 

idly  discarded  in  all  schools  marks  an  important  ad- 
vance in  the  practice  of  hygiene. 

Teachers  are  justified  in  insisting  that  pupils  should 
be  sent  to  school  in  a  cleanly  condition.  Not  only 
should  the  clothing  be  decent,  but  the  children  should 
be  required  to  bathe  at  home,  and  the  parents  should  be 
expected  to  see  that  this  requirement  is  carried  out. 

If  the  homes  of  the  children  are  such  that  this  is  im- 
possible it  is  apparent  that  the  school  cannot  be  decent 
and  healthful  unless  it  is  provided  with  baths.  The 
schools  of  Europe  have  made  more  progress  in  this  di- 
rection than  has  been  made  here,  but  in  the  future  the 
school-house  located  in  the  slums  of  our  cities  cannot 
be  classed  as  complete  unless  it  has  simple  yet  efi'ective 
bathing  facilities. 

Of  equal  importance  is  the  question  of  proper  nu- 
trition. Many  years  ago  it  was  found  necessary,  in  the 
poorer  sections  of  London,  to  provide  children  with  at 
least  one  palatable  meal  during  the  school  day.  The 
writer  remembers  visiting  a  large  school  in  Stockholm, 
where,  during  the  noon-hour,  in  a  large  hall  on  the 
upper  floor,  several  hundred  school  children  were  given 
a  lunch  which  they  themselves  had  assisted  in  prepar- 
ing. It  is  evident  that  children  whose  bodies  are 
poorly  nourished  derive  little  benefit  from  the  school, 
and  that  when  circumstances  demand  it  free  food  is 
just  as  appropriate  as  free  books.  However  much  our 
reason  may  dissent  from  the  idea  of  free  baths  and  free 
lunches,  certain  it  is  that  we  cannot  have  free  common- 
school  education  universally  and  successfully  applied 
without  them. 

The  study  of  physiology  and  hygiene,  with  attention  to 


70  School  Management 

the  evil  effects  of  alcohol  and  narcotics,  should  be  part 
of  every  curriculum.  Concerning  the  quantity  and  qual- 
ity of  this  instruction  there  is  the  widest  difference  of 
opinion. 

A  committee  of  twelve  persons,  the  chairman  of  which 
is  the  Secretary  of  the  State  Board  of  Education  in 
Massachusetts,  has  made  a  preliminary  report  on  a 
course  of  study  for  the  Massachusetts  public  schools 
which  avoids  extremes  and  yet  covers  the  essential 
points.  Introductory  to  that  report  are  certain  general 
suggestions  which  are  given  here  as  indicating  the  atti- 
tude to  be  desired  on  the  part  of  both  teacher  and 
pupil. 

4. — General  Suggestions. 

1.  The  child's  interests  and  point  of  view  should 
always  be  kept  in  mind. 

2.  The  work  should  be  formal  in  the  sense  of  hav- 
ing definite  times  and  places  for  enough  lessons  to  cover 
the  subject. 

3.  In  addition  to  the  formal  work,  much  incidental 
and  related  work  should  be  done. 

4.  Both  the  formal  and  the  incidental  work  should 
grow  out  of  the  child's  e very-day  life  in  the  school,  on 
the  playground,  and  in  the  home. 

5.  The  teacher  should  be  on  the  watch  for  opportu- 
nities to  inculcate  hygienic  ideas  of  living. 

6.  The  lessons  should  be  brief,  simple,  and  conver- 
sational in  form. 

7.  The  teacher  should  be  a  model  of  hygienic  living. 
Bad  postures,  untidiness  in  person  or  dress,  the  use  of 
tobacco  or  of  alcoholic  drinks — all  such  things  in  the 


Physical  Conditions  71 

teacher  are  serious  handicaps  to  good  hygienic  work 
with  the  child. 

8.  The  school-room  should  be  a  model  in  all  that  re- 
lates to  cleanliness,  order,  ventilation,  heating,  and  light- 
ing. The  children  should  help  to  keep  it  so,  and  un- 
derstand how  and  why  everything  is  done  for  that 
purpose. 

Note. — Every  primary  teacher  should  know  enough 
of  chemistry  and  physics  to  be  able  to  understand  thor- 
oughly the  heating,  ventilating,  and  lighting  of  her  own 
school-room. 

9.  The  children  should  be  led  to  practise  with  pleas- 
ure the  laws  of  personal  hygiene  which  they  leam. 

10.  Mothers'  meetings  may  be  profitably  held  for  the 
discussion  of  the  physical  well-being  of  the  children. 

When  parents  find  that  children  are  being  taught 
things  that  will  make  them  stronger  and  healthier,  they 
are  usually  glad  to  co-operate  with  such  teaching. 

11.  The  teacher  should  judiciously  consider  the  home 
conditions  of  each  child. 

12.  Special  lessons  should  be  arranged  to  meet  such 
adverse  conditions  as  may  be  found  in  the  home  ;  but 
great  care  and  tact  should  be  exercised  that  the  child 
shall  not  be  led  to  feel  that  his  own  home  and  parents 
are  subjected  to  criticism. 

Note. — The  fact  that  parents  may  not  use  good  Eng- 
lish should  not  prevent  teaching  the  child  coiTect  lan- 
guage, neither  should  the  use  of  alcohol  or  tobacco  or 
other  violation  of  hygienic  laws  by  anyone  in  the  home 
prevent  teaching  the  child  in  school  the  danger  thus 
involved. 

13.  The  teacher  should  take  the  children  precisely 


72  School  Management 

■where  they  are,  and  help  them  to  grow  into  better  hab- 
its of  physical  life.  Evolution,  and  not  revolution,  is 
the  natural  method  of  development. 

14.  Instruction  should  be  mainly  positive,  and  of  a 
character  to  guide  in  the  formation  of  right  habits. 

15.  Other  things  being  equal,  that  teacher  will  accom- 
plish most  for  the  children  who  has  the  largest  sympa- 
thies, and  keeps  in  the  closest  touch  with  both  children 
and  parents. 

16.  Such  simple  anatomical  and  physiological  ex- 
planations should  be  given  as  are  within  the  grasp  of  the 
children,  and  as  are  necessary  to  .make  the  teaching 
clear. 

TOPICAL   REVIEW 

I.  Direct  and  indirect  heating. 

2  The  principle  of  the  gravity  system. 

3  Relations  of  teachers  and  janitors. 

4.  Relation  of  pupils  to  janitors. 

5.  Cleanliness  of  pupils. 

6.  Definite  means  of  improving  the  hygiene  of  the  school 


CHAPTER  VI 
ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

The  school  board,  the  supermtendeut,  the  principal, 
and  the  teachers  are  all  factors  in  the  organization  of 
the  school.  The  welfare  of  every  pupil  is  involved,  so 
that  all  patrons  are  deeply  concerned  in  the  nature  and 
the  kind  of  mechanism  which  the  school  becomes. 

That  in  the  past  too  much  attention  has  been  given 
to  perfecting  the  machinery,  and  too  little  to  individual 
opportunity,  is  generally  agreed.  In  the  rapid  growth 
of  cities  the  graded  system  sprang  into  existence  as  the 
best  method  of  caring  for  large  numbers  of  children. 
During  its  earlier  stages,  principals  and  teachers  were 
often  untrained;  their  knowledge  of  the  child,  his  nat- 
ure, and  his  interests  was  limited ;  methods  and  appli- 
ances were  crude,  and,  in  the  rather  servile  deference 
to  the  idea  of  a  giaded  system,  lamentable  errors  were 
committed.  Now  there  is  a  large  volume  of  experience 
at  hand.  We  are  no  longer  worshipping  the  fetich  of 
system,  but  are  humbly  and  thoughtfully  studying  the 
needs  of  children,  and  are  trying  to  adapt  means  to  end 
in  a  great  variety  of  waj'S.  In  respect  of  grading,  pro- 
motions, discipline,  and  incentives,  professional  judg- 
ment and  common-sense  are  brought  to  bear,  not  merely 
upon  the  mass,  but  upon  the  individual.     Formerly  a 

73 


74  School  Management 

child's  fate  was  settled  before  bis  case  was  considered, 
now  it  is  not  settled  until  after  consideration,  and,  even 
then,  is  often  reopened  and  reconsidered  as  occasion 
may  require. 

This  view  of  present  conditions  implies  flexibility  and 
broad-mindedness  in  all  school  organization.  It  implies 
also  an  avoidance  of  extreme  measures,  and  the  ardent 
advocates  of  specially  unique  and  peculiar  ways  of  do- 
ing things  must  not  be  offended  if  schools  generally 
seek  to  extract  the  best  from  all  methods,  yet  decline  to 
commit  themselves  to  schemes  which  may  be  surpass- 
ingly excellent  in  one  or  two  particulars,  but  fail  to  do 
justice  in  other  respects.  We  should  never  be  ashamed 
to  discard  the  old  for  the  new,  if  we  are  sure  it  is  better ; 
but  wise  people  will  avoid  those  sudden  shifts  and 
erratic  tendencies  which  do  harm  to  the  schools,  and 
tend  to  discountenance  them  in  the  public  eye. 

y  ... 

1. — Distribution  of  Authority. 

In  rural  schools  where  there  is  little  supervision  the 
teacher  has  large  freedom  and  responsibility  in  classify- 
ing his  school  and  arranging  his  work.  In  town  and 
city  schools  there  is  a  sequence  of  authority  and  respon- 
sibility which  is  always  to  be  kept  in  mind.  The  school 
boards  are  responsible  to  the  people  who  elected  them. 
The  superintendent  derives  his  authority  from  the 
school  board,  by  whom  he  is  held  responsible  for  what 
he  does.  The  superintendent,  in  turn,  delegates  power 
and  authority  to  the  principals,  for  the  exercise  of  which 
he  holds  them  responsible.  The  principals  interpret 
the  general  policy  of  the  administration  to  the  teachers, 


Organization  of  the  School  75 

and  it  becomes  their  duty  to  see  that  they  conform  to 
the  general  plan. 

It  is  apparent  that  the  best  results  cannot  be  expected 
unless  there  is  loyalty  and  integrity  in  every  link  of  this 
chain  of  responsibility.  Teachers  must  be  loyal  to  the 
principal;  the  principal  to  the  superintendent;  the 
superintendent  to  the  school  board,  and  the  school 
board  to  the  citizens.  Furthermore,  the  authority  must 
be  so  distributed  that  all,  within  proper  limits,  have 
freedom  of  action.  The  school  board  that  does  not  give 
the  superintendent  both  freedom  and  power  commits  a 
fundamental  error,  and  one  that  has  proved  an  obstacle 
to  progress  in  many  localities.  The  principal  both 
needs  and  deserves  to  have  elbow-room,  while  faithfully 
and  loyally  supporting  the  superintendent  in  his  general 
policy,  and  he  should  be  encouraged  to  take  the  initiative 
in  any  plan  that  will  make  the  life  in  his  school 
stronger  and  richer.  What  freedom  means  to  the  teacher 
has  been  considered  in  a  former  chapter. 

It  may  be  said,  in  passing,  that  the  efficacy  of  a  cen- 
tralized school  management,  such  as  several  large 
American  cities  have  adopted,  will  be  tested  by  the  de- 
gree to  which  the  superintendent  succeeds  in  controlling 
the  huge  forces  under  his  command  without  excessive 
red  tape.  If  centralization  of  power  should  mean  such 
a  refinement  of  rules,  and  such  curtailment  of  individual 
freedom,  and  such  exasperating  espionage  as  to  depress 
the  spirits  and  cripple  the  free  action  of  teachers,  there 
would  certainly  be  a  reaction  in  favor  of  the  earlier  and 
more  democratic  methods. 


76  School  Management 


y^         2. — Meetings  of  Principals. 

A  superintendent  is  powerless  unless  the  principals 
second  Lis  efforts,  and,  being  loyal  and  faithful  them- 
selves, bring  their  teachers  into  the  same  attitude.  Con- 
versely, the  superintendent  cannot  expect  the  support 
of  his  principals  unless  he  takes  them  into  his  conifidence, 
consults  with  them  frequently,  and  inspires  in  them  both 
respect  and  affection. 

The  schools  of  a  community  well  express  in  their  or- 
ganization and  working  what  is  wholesome  and  health- 
ful only  when  superintendent  and  principals  are  in 
frequent  conference  and  consider  together  in  turn  all 
vital  questions.  A  principal,  in  hearing  a  problem  dis- 
cussed from  different  points  of  view,  will  often  see  things 
in  a  broader  light  and  will  revise  his  opinions.  For  the 
sake  of  reasonable  uniformity,  there  should  always  be 
mutual  concession  and  willingness  to  abide  by  the  de- 
cision of  the  superintendent  after  all  have  had  their 
say. 

Superintendents  and  principals  cannot  successfully 
co-operate  in  the  supervision  of  teaching  unless  there  is 
practical  agreement  on  their  part  respecting  the  ends  to 
be  sought.  Teachers  should  never  be  permitted  to  dis- 
cover any  lack  of  harmony  or  concert  of  action  in  the 
supervising  officers.  This  suggests  that  supervision 
should  address  itself  to  things  that  are  fundamental  and 
important  and  that  minor  details  should  be  left  largely 
to  teachers. 


Organization  of  the  School  77 


/-        3. — Grading  of  Pupils. 

In  rural  schools  the  classification  of  pupils  is  often 
difficult.  If  close  grading  is  attempted  too  many  divis- 
ions is  the  result.  It  has  been  found  by  experience 
that  a  teacher  can  have  four  or  five  divisions  or  classes 
in  the  essential  studies,  provided  the  recitation  periods 
are  made  short,  say,  ten  minutes  in  the  lower  classes,  and 
fifteen  to  twenty  minutes  in  the  higher  classes. 

In  all  schools  pupils  do  not  require  close  grading  in 
music,  drawing,  writing,  handwork,  and  nature  study. 
Under  the  right  conditions,  forty  pupils  belonging  to  the 
same  grade  in  an  average  city  school  can  work  together 
successfully.  But  in  the  more  central  studies,  we  will 
say,  as  reading,  mathematics,  geography,  history,  or 
language,  the  problem  of  grading  becomes  more  pressing. 
Here,  also,  experience  has  been  valuable.  The  evils 
growing  out  of  grading  by  years,  with  its  accompanying 
platoon  and  lock-step  movement,  have  been  greatly  miti- 
gated. The  marking  system,  with  its  terrifying  percent- 
ages, has  either  been  abolished  or  has  been  modified  so 
as  to  serve  simply  as  a  record  for  teachers  and  parents. 
Annual  uniform  examinations  for  promotion,  or  those 
held  at  stated  times  for  the  same  purpose,  have  largely 
given  Avay  to  written  exercises  and  tests  which  are  un- 
announced and  which  are  for  the  purposes  of  teaching 
and  training.  Courses  of  study  are  broader,  richer,  and 
more  flexible.  But  the  greatest  change  has  come  in  the 
fact  that  educators  see  that  the  school  has  a  moral 
rather  than  a  scholastic  aim.  They  see  that  the  best 
fruits  of  the  school  cannot  be  tested  by  a  written  ex- 


78  School  Management 

amination  or  measured  by  a  system  of  marks.  Would 
that  these  changes,  which  mean  so  much  to  the  welfare 
of  children,  were  universal.  Were  it  so,  much  less  would 
be  written  about  the  grading  of  pupils,  for  that  is  always 
done  upon  a  purely  scholastic  basis. 

There  is  considerable  literature  on  the  subject  of 
grading  and  the  promotion  of  pupils,  and  a  variety  of 
plans  are  advocated,  all  of  which  have  something  to 
commend  them.  We  will  briefly  examine  some  of 
them. 

1.  The  Individual  or  Pueblo  method.*  This  would 
to  a  large  extent  abolish  class  recitations  and  substitute 
longer  study  periods  in  which  the  individual  student 
does  advance  work  under  tlie  general  direction  of  the 
teacher.  This  method,  if  logically  applied,  puts  each 
student  in  a  class  by  himself.  It  is  claimed  that  under 
this  system  a  pupil  becomes  more  interested,  enthusi- 
astic, and  self-reliant.  Not  being  required  to  work  out 
of  school,  he  has  better  health.  It  is  also  claimed  a 
pupil  does  more  work  and  becomes  better  able  to  master 
difficulties. 

This  plan  has  met  with  considerable  approval,  but  in 
certain  quarters  has  been  received  with  objections  and 
even  with  derision.  Its  more  obvious  merits  are  that  it 
permits  quiet  study  under  the  eye  of  the  teacher.  As  in 
the  old-fashioned  country  school,  it  permits  the  in- 
dividual to  go  as  fast  as  he  is  able  and  to  acquire  a  mo- 
mentum that  is  not  possible  under  ordinary  circum- 
stances. It  fails,  however,  to  recognize  the  school  as 
a  social  whole  in  which  the  members  are  working 
for  others  as  well  as  for  themselves.  It  also  miui- 
*  "  The  Ideal  School,"  Preston  W.  Search. 


Organization  of  the  School  79 

mizes  the  value  of  the  recitation,  which  affords  the  best 
possible  opportunity  not  only  for  social  co-operation 
but  for  mental  stimulus  and  attrition.  To  wholly  ac- 
«ept  or  reject  this  method  is  evidently  a  pedagogical 
error.  Frequent  silent-study  periods,  with  the  indi- 
vidual opportunity  which  they  provide,  should  be  a 
part  of  every  school  programme.  In  other  words,  the 
sacred  principle  that  the  individual  should  be  respected 
and  should  not  be  made  to  conform  to  any  pattern,  ex- 
cept his  own,  is  sound. 

2.  The  Elizabeth  plan.*  Under  this  plan  the  pupils 
in  a  school-room  are  divided  into  four  or  five  groups, 
and,  by  a  frequent  reclassification,  those  of  similar 
ability  are  made  to  work  together.  Thus  bright  pupils 
are  enabled  to  go  on  somewhat  faster.  When  the  plan 
is  consistently  carried  out,  groups  of  pupils  are  admitted 
to  the  high  school  whenever  they  are  able  to  take  up 
the  work  to  be  done  there.  It  is  claimed  that  under 
this  plan  time  is  saved  for  many  pupils  and  thus  the 
schools  are  administered  more  economically.  The  fact 
that  younger  pupils  are  often  pushed  beyond  those  of 
their  own  age  has  seemed  to  some  to  be  an  objection. 
There  also  appears  to  be  a  good  deal  of  emphasis  upon 
a  purely  knowledge  standard,  and  it  is  claimed  that  if 
more  attention  were  given  to  a  character  standard,  there 
would  be  little  demand  for  frequent  classification,  and 
the  apparent  differences  in  the  abilities  of  children 
would  not  be  so  great. 

One  of  the  best  features  of  this  method  is  that  pupils 
have  a  larger  proportion  of  their  time  in  school  in  which 
to  prepare  their  lessons,  whereas  in  many  schools  nearly 
*  "  The  Grading  of  Schools,"  William  J.  Shearer. 


80 


School  Management 


all  the  time  is  given  to  recitations,  and  the  pupils  have 
to  do  most  of  their  studying  out  of  school. 

e     2         „     „  3.    The   Cambridge   or 

II         II  double-track  plan.*     This  is 

best  described  by  quoting 
^  from  the  report  of  School 
\     Committee. 


A   A       A   A 


11  It 


n 


11 


m 


^>k 


SI  -a 


03(3 


Arrow  No.  1  indicates  the 
4  years'  course  ;  grades  A,  B, 
C,  I).  Arrow  No.  2  indicates 
one  of  the  6  years'  courses ; 
grades  A,  B,  7,  8,  9.  Arrow 
No.  3  indicates  the  other  5 
years'  course;  grades  4,  5,  6, 
C,  T).  Arrow  No.  4  indicates 
the  6  years'  course ;  grades  4, 
5,  6,  7,  8,  9. 


Promotions  in  the  Grammar 
Schools. 

The  course  of  study  is  di- 
vided in  two  ways :  (1)  into 
six  sections ;  (2)  into  four 
sections ;  each  section  cover- 
ing a  year's  work.  Pupils 
taking  the  course  in  six  years 
are  classified  in  six  grades, 
called  the  fourth,  fifth,  sixth, 
seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth 
grades.  Those  taking  it  in 
four  years  are  classified  in 
four  grades,  called  grades  A, 
B,  C,  and  D.  When  pupils 
are  jjromoted  to  the  grammar 
schools  they  begin  the  first 
year's  work  together.  After 
two  or  three  months  they  are 
separated  into  two  divisions. 

One  division  advances  more 

*  Report  of  School  Committee,  1897. 
— Cambridge,  Mass. 


Organization  of  the  School  81 

rapidly  than  the  other,  and  during  the  year  completes 
one-fourth  of  the  whole  course  of  study.  The  other  di- 
vision completes  one-sixth  of  the  course. 

During  the  second  year  the  pupils  in  grade  B  are  in 
the  same  room  with  the  sixth  grade.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  year  they  are  five  mouths  (one-half  the  school 
year)  behind  those  in  the  sixth  grade.  After  two  or 
three  months  grade  B  is  able  to  recite  with  the  sixth 
grade,  and  at  the  end  of  the  year  both  divisions  have 
completed  one-half  the  course  of  study — the  one  in  two 
years,  and  the  other  in  three  years.  The  plan  for 
the  last  half  of  the  course  is  the  same  as  for  the  first 
half,  the  grades  being  known  as  the  seventh,  eighth, 
and  ninth  in  the  one  case,  and  as  C  and  D  in  the 
other. 

There  are  also  two  ways  of  completing  the  course  in 
five  years :  (1)  apy  pupil  who  has  completed  one-half 
the  course  in  two  years  may  at  the  end  of  that  time  be 
transferred  to  the  seventh  grade,  and  finish  the  course 
in  three  years ;  (2)  any  pupil  who  has  completed  one- 
half  the  course  in  three  years  may  at  the  end  of  that 
time  be  transferred  to  grade  C,  and  finish  the  course  in 
two  years.  In  both  cases  these  changes  can  be  made 
without  omitting  or  repeating  any  part  of  the  course. 
It  is  apparent  that  this  method  permits  the  able  pupils 
'  to  gain  time,  and  that  it  facilitates  grading.  Whenever 
it  is  put  in  operation  in  a  large  school,  one  or  more 
extra  teachers  are  required.  This  is  a  worthy  attempt 
to  meet  individual  needs  without  seriously  disturbing 
the  school  machinery. 

4.  An  old  and  very  common  method  is  that  of  divid- 
ing the  pupils  of  a  room  into  two  or  three  divisions  in 


82  School  Management 

the  essential  studies,  3-et  keeping  tliem  together  in 
others.  It  is  customary  in  the  first  grade  to  have 
groups  of  not  more  than  ten  childi'en ;  in  the  second 
grade  there  are  frequently  divisions  of  fifteen  pupils; 
in  grades  above,  the  more  common  practice  is  to  have 
two  divisions,  one  studying  while  the  other  is  reciting. 
Reclassifications  and  promotions  are  effected  either  an- 
nually or  semi-annually.  Instead  of  promoting  to  the 
high  school  at  mid-year,  the  advanced  division  is  given 
additional  work  and  the  entire  class  goes  forward  to- 
gether. 

5.  One  class  in  a  room  above  the  primary,  with  occa- 
sional individual  promotions  from  class  to  class  when 
ability  has  been  shown  and  sufficient  advance  has  been 
performed  to  warrant  promotion.  This  plan  has  failed 
to  give  the  best  results,  because  the  coui'se  of  study  has 
often  been  lacking  in  breadth  and  richness,  and  teachers 
have  been  made  to  feel  that  all  pupils  must  do  precisely 
the  same  work  in  kind  and  amount.  This  is  a  good 
time  to  suggest  that  in  all  elementary  teaching  the 
course  of  study  should  be  so  flexible  and  the  daily  les- 
sons so  arranged  that  the  brighter  and  stronger  pupils 
may  do  more  than  those  less  able.  In  all  the  world's 
activity  this  is  a  universal  rule.  It  is,  therefore,  wise  to 
have  in  any  school  supplementary  exercises  to  fill  up 
the  waiting  moments  of  the  quicker  j^upils,  as,  for  in- 
stance, extra  copies  to  be  written,  more  specimens  to  be 
examined,  additional  models  to  be  constructed,  more 
complex  objects  to  be  drawn,  correlated  questions  in 
geography  and  history  to  be  investigated  and  reported 
upon.  It  being  always  understood  that  the  additional 
work  is  not  to  be  undertaken  until  the  regular  prescribed 


Organization  of  the  School  83 

task  has  been  performed.  This  is  a  telling  waj  of 
moderating  the  evils  of  the  graded  system,  and  is 
specially  applicable  to  the  plan  of  grading  last  de- 
scribed. 

The  advocates  of  individualism  and  frequent  reclassi- 
fication overlook  the  fact  that  bright  pupils  can  make 
progress  in  more  than  one  direction.  There  is  value  in 
breadth  and  intensity  of  study  as  well  as  in  mere  exten- 
sion. A  person  may  travel  around  the  world  in  sixty 
days  and  have  less  to  show  for  it  than  he  who  spends 
the  same  length  of  time  travelling  from  Naples  to  Flor- 
ence, wisely  employing  his  faculties  in  trying  to  inter- 
pret what  he  sees  and  hears. 

It  is  evident  that  all  the  plans  of  grading  heretofore 
described  have  excellent  features.  It  is  a  mistake,  how- 
ever, to  claim  too  much  for  any  one  of  them.  The  spirit 
in  which  it  is  interpreted  and  applied  determines  the 
success  of  any  plan.  Able  pupils,  like  able  men,  have 
other  missions  than  simply  pushing  themselves  forward. 
The  world  to-day  is  suflfering  from  an  excess  of  selfish- 
ness. The  highest  and  best  things  in  life  are  under- 
valued. Altruism  is  too  little  in  evidence.  There  is 
little  virtue  in  a  hurried  journey  through  school  and 
college ;  it  too  often  results  in  a  physical  breakdown  or 
in  an  impairment  of  the  nervous  system,  while  the  slow 
boy  who  was  left  behind  in  the  grammar  school,  goes 
on  and  is  graduated  from  the  high  school  with  muscle 
and  nerve  in  good  condition  for  life's  battle.  It  is  the 
old  story  of  the  hare  and  the  tortoise. 

We  have  given  quite  enough  space  to  this  subject  of 
grading.  Due  consideration  for  the  human,  the  moral, 
the  social,  and  the  hygienic  aims  of  education  will  ever 


84  School  Management 

tend  to  lessen  tlie  emphasis  given  to  mere  form  and 
system.  The  increased  attention  now  given  to  all  kinds  of 
handwork,  including  gardening  and  household  economy, 
as  well  as  to  art,  music,  and  nature  study  brings  into 
stronger  relief  the  fact  that  mere  acquisition  is  only  an 
incident  in  the  truest  development  of  the  individual. 

4. — The  Promotion  of  Pupils. 

After  what  has  been  said  this  topic  needs  no  extended 
treatment.  The  things  most  important  to  be  kept  in 
mind  may  be  briefly  summarized :  1.  Groups  of  pupils 
of  about  the  same  age  and  ability  should  work  together 
for  a  reasonable  length  of  time,  doing  their  work  faith- 
fully, helping  each  other,  aiding  the  teacher ;  thus  gain- 
ing not  only  knowledge  and  power  but  also  social  con- 
sciousness and  strength.  2.  Pupils  should  be  promoted 
to  do  other  and  higher  work  when  they  have  proved 
their  fitness  by  doing  faithfully  and  well  what  has  been 
assigned  them.  3.  The  teacher's  judgment,  based  upon 
the  observation  of  pupils  in  their  daily  work  of  study 
and  reciting,  should  be  the  determining  factor.  4.  A 
final  examination  as  a  test  for  promotion  either  from 
grammar  or  high  school  or  from  high  school  to  college 
has  many  objections.  It  is  too  often  unfairly  adminis- 
tered. It  practically  ignores  the  moral  element  in  educa- 
tion. It  enslaves  the  teacher  and  narrows  teaching.  It 
is  unhygienic,  as  it  causes  anxiety  and  worry  and  puts 
too  great  strain  upon  a  child  when  he  is  least  able  to 
bear  it.  Even  if  the  institution  to  which  the  pupil  is 
accredited  does  require  an  examination,  a  great  deal  of 
deference  should  be  paid  to  the  opinion  of  his  former 


Organization  of  the  School  85 

teachers,  and  if  that  is  favorable  he  should  at  least  be 
taken  upon  probation. 

Further  reference  will  be  made  to  this  subject  under 
the  heads  of  "Incentives"  and  "Examinations."  The 
more  we  study  the  subject  of  grading  and  promotion  the 
more  clearly  we  shall  see  that  it  becomes  of  less  con- 
sequence in  proportion  as  we  comprehend  the  social 
and  ethical  factors  in  the  school,  and  give  due  valuation 
to  the  potencies  of  the  child's  higher  nature  which  find 
expression  through  the  head,  the  hand,  and  the  heart. 


TOPICAL    REVIEW 

1.  Has  there  been  too  much  system  in  schools? 

2.  Are  school  teachers  too  conservative,  and  why? 

3.  The  sense  of  responsibility  as  a  stimulus  to  good  work. 

4.  The  true  field  of  supervision. 

5.  Things  to  be  considered  in  grading  pupils.    In  what  sense 
is  the  school  both  individual  and  social  ? 

6.  How  may  some  pupils  do  more  work  than  others  ? 


CHAPTER  Vn 
THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  SCHOOL 

School  governmeut,  while  as  important  as  ever,  re- 
ceives far  less  attention  as  a  distinct  purpose,  and  is 
accomplished  by  far  different  methods  than  formerly. 
In  no  other  respect  does  the  modern  school  differ  so 
much  from  that  of  former  times.  In  the  good  school  of 
to-day  the  teacher  seeks  to  promote  a  life  so  full  of 
interest,  application,  and  industry,  that  the  energies  of 
the  pupils  are  absorbed,  so  that  there  is  little  time  or 
opportunity  for  misconduct.  Good  manners  and  orderly 
conduct  are  simply  incidental  features  to  great  under- 
takings, which  cannot  be  carried  on  without  them.  The 
modern  curriculum  provides  abundant  work,  and  this 
is  the  true  preventive  of  idleness  and  disorder. 

1. — The  Power  of  Personality. 

In  Chapters  IV.  and  V.  qualifications  of  a  good  teacher 
are  enumerated.  Possessed  of  these  he  can  assume  the 
leadership  so  essential  in  every  school-room.  He  will 
rule,  not  by  fear  but  by  love,  and  "  Perfect  love  casteth 
out  fear,"  as  well  as  many  other  evil  tendencies  which 
are  contrary  to  right  feeling  and  living. 

The  teacher  should,  therefore,  from  the  very  begin- 
ning of  his  acquaintance  with  a  new  class,  put  his  beat 


2Vie  Govern?nent  of  the  School  87 

self  at  work,  and,  by  the  power  of  his  own  personality, 
seek  to  enlist  the  hearty,  cheerful  co-operation  of  every 
pupil. 

2. — Plan  luith  Care. 

It  should  not  be  inferred  from  what  has  been  said 
that  the  principal  or  the  teacher  can  afford  to  over- 
look any  practical  details  affecting  the  school.  Gen- 
ius when  analyzed  is  usually  found  to  consist  in 
foresight  and  careful  planning.  It  is  so  in  military 
affairs  and  in  trade.  The  wise  teacher  will,  therefore, 
plan  his  campaign  even  to  the  smallest  detail,  so  that 
he  can  conduct  the  business  of  the  school  with  despatch, 
and  so  that  every  emergency  is  provided  for.  He  must 
not  be  taken  off  his  guard,  at  least  until  he  has  thorough 
control.  Orators,  musicians,  and  poets,  Avho  do  fine 
things  so  easily  and  so  naturally  that  they  seem  to  be 
inspired,  are  usually  those  who  have  labored  in  solitude, 
and  have  learned  to  give  every  piece  of  work  their  most 
patient  and  solicitous  care. 

How  often  have  teachers  been  known  to  conduct  a 
devotional  exercise  at  the  opening  of  school,  with  such 
evident  lack  of  preparation  and  such  apparent  indiffer- 
ence to  its  real  purpose,  that  not  only  pupils  but  visitors 
are  impressed  most  unfavorably.  It  is  said  that  the  late 
Edwin  Booth,  the  great  actor,  once  recited  the  Lord's 
Prayer  in  a  theatre  so  that  many  in  the  great  audience 
were  moved  to  tears.  A  principal  or  teacher  may  open 
the  school  in  the  morning  in  a  manner  so  impressive 
and  helpful  as  to  set  the  pace  for  the  entire  day.  Every 
movement  and  every  exercise  needs  to  be  carefully  con- 
sidered and  arranged. 


88  School  Management 

3. — Act  with  Courage. 

The  weak,  timid  teacher  is  a  failure  from  the  start. 
Unless  he  can  overcome  his  faiut-heartedness  he  would 
better  change  his  vocation.  The  teacher  knowing  what 
he  wishes  to  do  should  set  about  it  bravely  and  ener- 
getically. Knowing  what  commands  he  is  to  give,  he 
should  give  them  in  a  tone  of  voice  to  be  heard  and 
obeyed  by  all.  As  a  rule,  it  is  a  mistake  to  repeat  di- 
rections or  commands.  Pupils  should  be  trained  to 
hear  and  to  act  when  the  direction  is  given. 

"With  this  suggestion  as  to  the  absolute  need  of  cour- 
age should  go  an  intimation  in  favor  of  plenty  of 
reserve.  The  garrulous,  nagging  teacher  causes  disaster 
and  ruin.  In  school  as  elsewhere,  "A  word  fitly  spoken 
is  like  apples  of  gold  in  pictures  of  silver." 

Place  Confidence  in  Pupils. 

The  wise  teacher  will,  from  the  first,  not  only  trust 
pupils  who  are  undoubtedly  loyal,  but  will  also  show  his 
confidence  in  those  who  are  either  reserved  or  who  show 
some  signs  of  opposition  to  his  policy.  He  can  afford 
to  wait  for  such,  and  while  waiting  show  them  that  he  is 
both  generous  and  expectant.  It  is  not  well  to  make  a 
personal  issue  of  every  act  not  strictly  in  accord  with 
the  standards  of  the  school.  In  fact,  the  more  imper- 
sonal the  discipline  of  the  school  is  the  better.  "We 
often  make  people  better  by  believing  in  them,  and  by 
letting  them  know  that  we  believe  in  them.  A  kind 
word  spoken  to  a  doubtful  pupil  often  conquers  him. 
"What  a  doleful  mistake  it  is  to  scold  individual  pupils 


The  Government  of  the  School  89 

in  the  presence  of  the  whole  class !  At  such  times  a 
teacher  too  often  exceeds  justice,  and  speaks  bitter 
words  which  leave  a  sting  behind  difficult  to  be  effaced. 
As  far  as  possible  all  serious  breaches  of  conduct  on 
the  part  of  individual  pupils  are  to  be  treated  privately, 
when  by  tact  and  skill  the  teacher  will  win  the  pupil's 
confidence,  and  make  him  his  strong  and  ardent  ally. 

4. — Be  Kind  and  Sympathetic. 

How  little  a  teacher  knows  of  the  sorrows,  frailties, 
and  trials  hidden  in  the  breasts  of  those  who  come 
under  his  charge.  Every  home  has  its  adversities  and 
distresses.  Some  even  have  disasters  and  miseries,  and 
in  these  the  children  share,  and  often  bear  the  marks  of 
them  in  their  faces,  and  the  burdens  of  them  in  their 
hearts.  Rich  and  poor  live  under  shadows  which  can- 
not be  escaped,  and  which  affect  the  disposition  and  the 
temper.  Kindness  and  sympathy  pay  large  dividends  in 
every  walk  in  life,  and  especially  in  the  school.  The 
touch  of  a  kind-hearted  teacher  is  a  power  at  once 
subtle  and  unique. 

5. — The  School  Virtues. 

It  has  been  thought  necessary  in  the  past  to  give 
special  attention  to  certain  forms  of  conduct  and  traits 
of  character,  and  to  teach  them  by  means  of  precepts 
and  concrete  examples.  While  the  writer  believes  that 
these  virtues  are  the  fruit  of  life,  and  are  developed  not 
by  teaching,  but  by  living  and  practising  them,  it  seems 
well  at  this  point  to  enumerate  them,  so  that  as  we  pro- 


90  School  Management 

ceed  to  consider  the  larger  phases  of  school  government, 
these  school  virtues  will  not  be  overlooked  or  neglected. 
Their  chief  importance  lies  in  the  fact  that  they  stand  for 
those  fundamental  habits  which  form  so  large  a  part  of 
our  higher  life. 

1.  Promptness  and  punctuality.  These  virtues  were 
never  more  essential  than  to-day,  for  life  is  rapid, 
things  must  be  done  quickly  and  on  time,  minutes 
and  even  seconds  have  definite  value,  and  only  he 
who  is  prompt  and  punctual  can  fit  into  the  modem 
scheme. 

2.  Care,  neatness,  and  economy.  The  habit  of  thrift 
is  of  universal  worth.  It  prevents  haste,  waste,  and  im- 
providence. It  induces  thoughtfulness  and  artistic  ex- 
cellence in  respect  of  personal  effort  as  well  as  in  what 
pertains  to  the  welfare  of  the  school  community.  Pu- 
pils should  be  neat,  cleanly,  and  painstaking  in  all  their 
work. 

3.  Silence  and  obedience.  We  have  already  spoken 
of  the  necessity  of  reserve  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 
How  important  that  the  child  should  early  learn  to 
restrain  his  impulse  to  speak,  and  should  be  quick  to 
respond  to  the  wishes  and  the  directions  of  the  teacher  ! 
The  old  adage  that  "Speech  is  silver  and  silence  is 
golden  "  has  a  wide  application  in  the  school.  In  this 
respect,  as  well  as  in  regard  to  obedience,  it  is  to  be 
feared  that  the  American  home  is  deficient.  The  school 
must  therefore  be  the  more  assiduous  in  promoting  these 
virtues.  Without  obedience  to  law  there  can  be  no 
government,  and  no  genuine  social  life. 

4.  Attention  and  industry.  These  traits  of  character 
are  also  essential  to  success.     They  are  perhaps  com- 


T'he  Govermnent  of  the  School  91 

prised  in  the  word  "  strenuousness,"  so  popular  at 
present.  The  habit  of  alertness  and  unwearied  exertion 
marks  all  those  who  win  the  great  prizes  in  life,  as  well 
as  that  larger  number  who  gain  an  honorable  competence 
and  confer  benefits  on  their  fellow-men.  This  habit 
should  be  gained  in  the  school,  and  every  activity  in 
which  the  pupil  engages  should  be  an  opportunity  for 
adding  something  to  it. 

5.  Kindness  and  courtesy.  These  virtues  are  to  be 
practised  by  pupils  in  their  relations  to  teachers  and 
each  other.  Pupils  are  also  to  be  encouraged  to  act 
kindly  and  coui'teously  at  home  and  elsewhere.  In  the 
good  school  it  is  often  observed  that  pupils  seem  to  find 
pleasure  in  gentlemanly  bearing  and  conduct.  How 
delightful  school  life  becomes  when,  in  the  class-rooms 
and  halls,  and  on  the  playgrounds,  gentle  manners  and 
mutual  respect  seem  to  be  fixed  habits. 

6.  Truthfulness.  Here  certainly  is  a  virtue  which 
cannot  be  taught  by  precept  or  any  other  device.  It 
represents  rather  a  state  of  mind  and  heart  which  is  to 
be  reached  by  gi'owth  under  the  right  conditions.  The 
very  young  child  does  not  apprehend  the  nature  of 
tnith,  and  no  greater  mistake  can  be  made  than  to  accuse 
him  of  lying  or  punish  him.  The  entire  school  life 
should  be  so  full  of  frankness  and  open-heartedness,  and 
such  a  high  premium  should  be  given  to  truthfulness  in 
its  every  form,  that  even  those  who  are  naturally  weak  in 
this  virtue  will  become  strong,  and  will  learn  to  hate 
every  kind  of  falsehood. 

It  is  readily  seen  that  these  school  virtues  are  not  to 
be  treated  apart  from  the  daily  life.  Habits  based  upon 
them  can  be  formed  only  slowly  and  gradually.     There 


92  School  Management 

will  be  frequent  lapses  and  many  discouragements,  both 
for  tlie  individual  and  the  teacher,  and  considerable  faith 
is  needed  for  carrying  on  this  work  of  moral  improve- 
ment. 

6. — Self-control  and  Self-government. 

As  self-activity  and  self-development  are  the  corner- 
stones of  education,  so  self-control  is  the  very  beginning 
of  right  discipline.  In  former  times  the  teacher  sought 
to  control  his  pupils,  the  modern  aim  is  to  have  pupils 
control  themselves.  This  can  happen  only  when  the 
teacher  gives  abundant  opportunity  for  free  choice.  A 
virtue,  hke  one's  arm,  will  not  grow  and  be  strong  without 
exercise.  So  growth,  in  all  the  virtues  we  have  enumer- 
ated, is  to  be  attained  by  finding  constant  occasion  in 
the  school  life  for  their  practice.  The  teacher  will  even 
permit  pupils  to  make  mistakes  in  order  that  they  may 
correct  them,  and  so  become  more  thoughtful  and  care- 
ful. It  is  well  to  have  a  good  understanding  with  pupils, 
explain  to  them  frequently  the  nature  and  importance 
of  self-control  and  self-direction,  and  even  ask  them  to 
suggest  ways  in  which  they  think  they  can  improve  and 
gain  power  in  this  direction.  The  teacher  should  re- 
frain from  criticism  or  comment  of  a  personal  character, 
which  would  tend  in  any  way  to  discourage  efifort.  If  a 
pupil  needs  to  be  reminded  of  his  privilege  and  duty, 
a  look  is  often  much  better  than  a  word.  In  the 
silent-study  period  as  well  as  in  the  recitation  there 
is  unceasing  demand  for  self-control  and  self-repression. 
AH  the  conditions,  physical  and  moral,  should  be  favor- 
able. Every  encouragement  should  be  given  by  the 
teacher,  for  success  here  means  a  successful  school. 


The  Government  of  the  School  93 

Games  and  excursions  give  another  set  of  opportunities, 
somewhat  different,  but  none  the  less  valuable. 

By  these  means  self-government  may  be  obtained  in 
the  school,  and  by  no  others.  In  its  attainment  there  is 
constant  appeal  to  those  qualities  which  make  the  good 
citizen,  and  the  school  becomes  less  artificial  and  more 
like  a  type  of  free,  self -governed  society. 


l.—  Tlie  School  City  Plan. 

It  is  quite  a  number  of  years  since  certain  schools  and 
colleges  began  to  experiment  in  various  plans  for  self- 
government.  The  one  best  known,  which  has  gained 
considerable  favor,  is  called  the  School  City.  It  has 
been  tried  in  grammar,  high,  and  normal  schools  with 
quite  a  little  success.  Although  varying  somewhat  in 
details,  this  plan  usually  provides  a  representative  gov- 
ernment, organized  and  carried  on  by  the  pupils.  The 
several  classes  elect  delegates  to  a  general  assembly  or 
council,  which  elects  the  necessary  executive  officers  and 
makes  laws  which  they  are  to  execute.  In  some  in- 
stances the  scheme  has  been  elaborated  so  as  to  provide 
two  legislative  bodies,  resembling  the  Senate  and  House 
of  Kepresentatives  of  a  State,  or  the  Common  Council 
and  Board  of  Aldermen  of  a  city.  The  principal  of  a 
school  often  has  the  right  of  veto.  There  is  sometimes 
a  Court  of  Appeals,  of  which  the  teachers  are  members. 

This  plan  of  the  School  City  has  met  with  varying 
success,  according  as  the  teachers  have  show^n  good 
judgment,  and  have  given  the  right  guidance  and  over- 
sight. Perhaps  the  most  striking  instance  of  this  kind 
of  organization,  as  a  means  of  moral  betterment,  is  seen 


94  School  Management 

in  the  George  Junior  Republic.  Here  a  considerable 
number  of  boys  of  rather  unfortunate  heritage  and  train- 
ing have  gained  experience  in  self-control  and  in  con- 
forming to  laws,  thus  acquiring  good  moral  standards, 
and  laying  the  foundations  of  a  good  life. 

8. — Democracy  and  Law, 

Many  failures  have  resulted  in  attempting  to  establish 
self-government  in  schools.  Frequently  a  too  sudden 
transition  has  been  made  from  the  old  forms  of  disci- 
pline where  pupils  were  held  with  an  iron  hand,  to  the 
new,  where  they  were  thrown  somewhat  upon  their  own 
devices.  It  has  been  found  that  backward  peoples,  like 
the  Filipinos,  cannot  be  given  all  the  functions  of 
democratic  government  too  suddenly.  They  must  learn 
what  free  government  implies,  and  must  be  permitted 
to  acquire  ability  to  govern  themselves  by  gradual  ex- 
perience. So  it  is  with  youth,  and  especially  with  those 
whose  education  has  been  largely  upon  the  streets,  or 
who  have  hitherto  received  no  culture  in  responsible 
conduct. 

Moreover,  it  has  often  occurred  that  the  school,  in  at- 
tempting to  realize  the  conception  of  true  self-govern- 
ment, has  exceeded  those  limitations  which  long  ex- 
perience has  found  to  be  necessary  in  all  democratic 
society.  For  example :  Every  citizen  in  America  is  by 
no  means  free  to  do  as  he  pleases  or  as  he  thinks  proper. 
Far  from  it.  He  is  hedged  about  by  a  complex  network 
of  laws  of  the  national.  State,  and  municipal  govern- 
ments, the  violation  of  which  is  attended  with  severe 
penalties.     Courts  of  justice  stand  ready  to  deal  prompt- 


The  Government  of  the  School  95 

Ij  and  sternly  with  all  offenders.  The  right-minded 
citizen,  pursuing  the  round  of  his  daily  duties,  is  not  con- 
scious that  grim  justice  is  thus  enthroned.  If  he  thinks 
of  it  at  all,  he  realizes  that  through  laws  his  rights  and 
privileges  are  protected,  and  because  of  them  he  lives  in 
safety  and  security.  In  other  words,  democracy  and 
law  are  not  incompatible,  but  are  rather  complementary 
to  each  other.  The  school  may  wisely  adopt  the  forms 
of  civic  order,  but  this  should  be  done  under  such  restric- 
tions, and  with  such  provisions  for  final  justice,  that 
the  system  will  not  break  down,  because  freedom  has 
been  turned  into  license,  and  democracy  into  anarchy. 
Back  of  all  the  activities  of  the  school  are  the  authority 
and  power  which  reside  in  the  principal  and  his  assist- 
ants. There  are  also  the  common  laws  of  decency,  hon- 
esty, and  good  behavior,  which  are  in  force  always  and 
everywhere. 

9. — TJie  Incorrigible. 

Is  the  presence  of  the  incorrigible  an  indication  that 
something  is  wrong  in  the  school?  Doubtless  it  is  so 
in  many  cases,  but  not  always.  Every  possible  effort 
should  be  made  to  save  to  the  school  those  who  are 
handicapped  by  bad  heredity,  evil  habits,  and  vicious 
dispositions.  The  teacher  will  endeavor  by  private  ap- 
peal and  kindly  intercourse,  not  only  in  the  school  but 
outside  of  it,  to  reach  such.  He  will  try  to  have  his 
best  pupils  assist  in  this  endeavor.  But  there  is  a  limit 
beyond  which  ho  cannot  go.  The  good  of  the  whole 
school  must  be  taken  into  account,  and  if  its  good  repute 
and  moral  tone  require  it,  the  incorrigible  one  must  be 
eliminated.      This  act  is  sometimes  too  long  delayed, 


96  School  Management 

both  for  the  welfare  of  the  school  and  the  individual  in 
question.  Nearly  all  large  communities  make  some  pro- 
vision for  such  cases  in  parental  or  reform  schools.  It 
cannot  be  urged  too  strongly  that  an  incorrigible  youth, 
who  perchance  is  so  by  reason  of  some  infirmity  for 
which  he  is  hardly  responsible,  shall  be  placed  in  a  home 
school  where  there  are  only  a  few  others,  and  where  at 
the  hands  of  a  kindly  Christian  teacher,  under  a  system 
of  firm  moral  training,  he  is  started  upon  the  road  to  a 
good  and  useful  life. 

10. — Cha7'acter  the  End  of  Discipline. 

"We  seek  to  have  good  schools  and  are  ever  seeking  to 
make  them  better,  but  the  real  pui-pose  of  school  gov- 
ernment is  not  the  school  merely,  but  the  building  of 
character  in  each  individual  pupil.  We  use  discipline 
for  that  purpose.  Many  people  in  their  superficial  view 
of  things  are  enthusiastic  in  their  praise  of  schools 
which  appear  well  because  there  is  good  order.  The 
teacher  may  be  a  martinet,  and  discipline  may  be  ob- 
tained through  repressive  or  coercive  measures,  yet  the 
power  of  tradition  and  custom  is  so  strong,  and  people 
are  so  short-sighted  and  ignorant,  that  they  esteem  highly 
what  in  reality  should  be  condemned.  Even  those  who 
are  not  the  most  devoted  followers  of  Herbart  will  admit 
that  the  great  central  aim  of  education  is  character. 
How,  then,  can  we  approve  the  methods  of  discipline 
which  not  only  prevent  the  exercise  of  right  motives 
and  noble  aims  but  discourage  and  thwart  the  child  in 
his  natural  and  spontaneous  efforts  to  do  right  ?  We 
have  suggested  in  a  former  chapter  that  a  school  must 


The  Government  of  the  School  97 

not  be  over-systematized.  This  is  applicable  in  any  at- 
tempts to  make  discipline  a  means  of  character-building. 
Some  movements  and  exercises  in  the  school  may  be 
reduced  to  military  precision,  and  become  as  it  were  au- 
tomatic, but  the  teacher's  good  judgment  must  decide 
when  this  kind  of  work  is  to  end,  for  it  certainly  must 
end  somewhere.  The  easiest  way  of  disciplining  a 
school  is  to  reduce  everything  to  mechanism,  but  this 
method  offers  the  least  opportunities  for  individual 
choice  and  initiative.  It  helps  the  teacher,  but  if  carried 
too  far  does  not  help  the  pupil  in  character-building. 
He  does  well  while  the  system  is  on,  but  when  released 
from  school,  having  little  power  of  self-control,  he  is  apt 
to  be  turbulent  and  lawless. 

There  should  be  a  good  understanding  between  parents 
and  teachers.  The  school  and  the  home  should  not 
draw  apart  in  the  moral  training  of  the  young.  Noth- 
ing but  persistent  and  continuous  practice  in  well-doing 
will  produce  that  staying  power  which  efficient  char- 
acter requires. 


TOPICAL   REVIEW 

1.  The  true  aim  of  school  government. 

2.  The  value  of  thought  beforehand. 

3.  Courage  and  respect  go  together.  — 

4.  How  may  pupils  and  teachers  come  tO  understand  each  other  ? 

5.  Other  school  virtues. 

6.  The  factors  in  self-government. 

7.  The  strength  and  weakness  of  the  "  School  City." 

8.  The  limitations  of  self-government. 

9.  Are  some  pupils  unsuited  to  the  school  ? 

10.  Character-building  through  the  exercise  of  freedom. 


CHAPTER  Vm 
SCHOOL  INCENTIVES 

Keeping  in  mind  that  the  chief  aim  of  the  school  is 
moral  culture  based  upon  self-control  and  social  effi- 
ciency, we  may  hope  to  consider  this  tojDic  with  fairness. 
With  the  better  light  of  the  present  time  it  is  easy  to 
see  how  many  sins  have  been  committed  in  the  name  of 
education.  To  win  at  any  cost  has  been  the  motto  of  the 
old-time  schoolmaster.  The  old  pedagogy,  like  the  old 
theology,  did  not  deal  in  a  large  constructive  way  with 
human  motive  and  ambition.  It  appealed  to  fear  and 
selfishness  rather  than  to  love  and  honor.  Some  of  the 
devices  employed  in  earlier  schools  were  not  wanting  in 
quaintness  and  humor.  A  certain  New  England  school- 
master, who  had  obtained  considerable  reputation  be- 
cause of  his  ability  to  control  schools  where  others  had 
failed,  was  engaged  to  complete  a  term  at  a  country 
school  where  the  master  had  been  forced  out.  He  ap- 
peared at  the  school  late  one  Monday  morning,  shook 
hands  all  around  with  the  pupils,  apologized  for  being 
tardy,  and  explained  that  he  had  tarried  at  a  neigh- 
boring village  to  make  arrangements  for  some  coffins 
which  would  shortly  be  sent  to  the  school. 

This  method  of  approach,  which  can  be  excused  in 
this  instance,  was  often  pursued  with  such  severity  as 
to  make  school  life  anything  but  attractive. 


School  Incentives  99 

But,  strange  to  say,  there  are  types  of  school  discipline 
still  prevalent  both  in  Europe  and  America  which  re- 
veal the  rudiments  of  a  former  and  more  barbaric  age. 
Moreover,  there  has  been  shown  remarkable  vis  inert  ice 
in  any  movement  toward  a  more  wholesome  method  of 
moral  training.  The  teacher,  instead  of  assuming  lead- 
ership and  summoning  his  pupils  to  brave  and  chivaLric 
conduct,  has  been  contented  to  work  upon  the  low  plane 
of  cheap  devices  and  sordid  motives.  He  has  been  slow 
to  see,  slow  to  understand  that  self-realization  does  not 
mean  selfish  realization,  that  it  means  rather  the  con- 
sciousness of  will  to  attempt  and  power  to  achieve.  It 
means  a  continuous  play  of  high  and  noble  motives. 

Another  obstacle,  perhaps,  to  breadth  and  common- 
sense  in  school  discipline  has  been  the  tendency  to 
mystify  the  subject  by  injecting  into  it  a  scheme  of  moral 
philosophy  with  all  its  subtle  and  analytic  reasoning. 
Better  than  any  abstract  ethical  scheme  is  a  thorough 
acquaintance  with  the  child  and  a  skilful  use  of  common- 
sense  in  helping  him  to  conquer  himself  and  stand  for 
what  is  good  and  true. 

Again,  the  new  education  has  set  in  motion  new  forces 
both  in  the  school  and  in  the  home,  so  that  the  child  is 
induced  to  do  well  through  the  incentive  of  interesting 
and  inspiring  work,  rather  than  by  moral  precepts  ac- 
companied possibly  by  inducements  of  a  less  worthy 
sort.  It  is  less  important  that  the  child  understand  the 
philosophy  of  conduct  and  life,  than  that  he  forms  the 
habit  of  well-doing  from  the  love  of  it.  Let  us  briefly 
examine,  somewhat  critically,  some  of  the  incentives  that 
are  available  in  the  school  life. 


100  School  Management 

1. — Artificial  and  Objectionable  Incentives. 

1.  Marks.  This  incentive  is  widely  nsed,  and  cannot 
be  wholly  condemned.  It  affords  a  means  of  keeping 
some  record  of  the  pupil's  efforts  and  attainments  to 
which  the  teacher  can  refer,  and  by  means  of  which  he 
may  make  some  report  to  the  parents.  But  working  for 
marks,  simply  to  do  as  well  or  better  than  others,  is  a 
low  motive,  and  when  teachers  allude  often  to  the  marks 
and  hold  them  over  their  pupils  with  frequent  remioders 
of  the  judgment-day  to  come,  they  carry  a  whole  train 
of  evils.  In  the  first  place  it  should  be  understood  that 
pupils  differ  greatly  in  ability  as  well  as  in  physical 
strength.  God  has  made  them  so,  and  to  attempt  to 
eradicate  these  differences  is  contrary  to  nature.  The 
bright  child  should  not  have  his  conceit  continually 
fostered  by  high  marks,  neither  should  the  slow  child  be 
forever  oppressed  and  humiliated  by  low  ones.  It  is 
not  unusual  for  children  to  think  so  continually,  night 
and  day,  of  the  marks  they  receive  and  the  effect  they 
are  to  have  on  their  future  standing,  that  they  become 
morbid,  unhappy,  and  suffer  partial  loss  of  appetite  and 
possibly  of  sleep.  They  are  sometimes  ashamed  to  tell 
at  home  what  the  trouble  is,  so  parents,  who  are  often 
too  ambitious  for  their  children,  show  their  displeasm-e 
when  the  monthly  card  is  received,  and  the  child's 
marks  are  not  satisfactory.  This,  of  course,  increases 
the  difficulty,  breeds  unhappiness  in  the  home,  and,  when 
parents  finally  conclude,  as  they  usually  do,  that  the  low 
marks  are  the  fault  of  the  school  rather  than  of  the 
child,  the  situation  becomes  acute. 

In  short,  it  is  apparent  that  the  marking  system  as  an 


School  Incentives  101 

incentive  is  not  a  healthy  or  proper  stimuhis.  There  is 
nothing  quite  like  it  in  real  life,  and,  if  properly  analyzed, 
it  is  seen  to  be  quite  out  of  place  in  a  school  which  is 
conducted  under  the  idea  that  education  is  life. 

In  Smith  College,  while  marks  are  used  as  a  means 
of  keeping  a  record  of  the  work  done,  no  student  at  any 
time  during  her  course,  or  even  at  the  close  of  it,  knows 
anything  about  her  standing  unless  it  falls  below  the 
required  grade.  If  such  care  is  taken  with  students 
of  college  age,  how  much  greater  is  the  need  of  caution 
in  the  care  of  those  in  school ! 

It  is  earnestly  recommended  that  marks  be  kept  en- 
tirely imder  cover,  and  that  other  and  higher  forms  of 
incentive  be  employed. 

2.  Prizes.  The  custom  of  o£fering  prizes  in  all  kinds 
of  schools  is  one  of  long  standing,  and  it  is  likely  to  be 
some  time  before  the  practice  of  giving  them  is  aban- 
doned. So  many  people  who  have  but  little  money  to 
give  away  and  yet  wish  to  have  their  names  connected 
with  some  school  or  college,  establish  prizes  without 
giving  the  slightest  thought  to  the  question  whether  they 
are  going  to  work  good  or  ill.  If  prizes  are  given  to 
those  who  attain  some  definite  result  in  a  given  time,  or 
who  reach  a  certain  standard  of  excellence,  or  if,  in 
other  words,  a  prize  is  given  for  good  work  continued 
through  a  considerable  period  of  time,  it  is  less  objec- 
tionable, as  it  may  not  necessarily  a£fect  health  or  foster 
the  desire  to  surpass  someone  else.  To  be  more  precise : 
if  a  prize  in  a  given  school  is  offered  to  those  whose 
work  in  English  or  history  at  the  end  of  the  year  should 
be  pronounced  very  creditable,  the  sole  desire  aroused 
is  to  reach  that  standard   and  not  to  surpass  anyone 


102  School  Management 

else.  Even  this  plan  of  prize-giving  should  only  be  ap- 
proved in  schools  with  exceeding  care  and  modera- 
tion. When,  however,  prizes  are  offered  for  the  best 
examination  in  a  given  subject,  said  examination  to 
come  near  the  end  of  the  year,  and  to  occupy  two  or 
three  hours,  the  plan  cannot  be  defended.  "What  is 
needed  is  moral  courage  to  oppose  the  establishment  of 
such  prizes.  The  writer  confesses  that  he  once  failed 
to  meet  such  an  emergency  squarely. 

The  chief  fault  with  prizes  is  that  they  stimulate  only 
a  very  few,  and  those  are  the  ones  who  are  working  hard 
enough.  The  large  majority  in  the  class  make  little  if 
any  effort  to  attain  them,  and  those  who  need  the 
incentive  most  are  absolutely  indifferent.  The  late 
Dr.  White,  one  of  the  wisest  and  most  conservative 
schoolmen  that  America  has  produced,  says  :  "  that  the 
prize  system  has  an  appalling  list  of  victims  who  have 
died  early,  or  who  are  invalids  for  life.  Superiority  in 
scholastic  attainments  is  dearly  bought  at  the  sacrifice 
of  health  and  physical  vigor." 

3.  Special  privileges  and  favors.  Under  this  head 
would  come  early  dismissals  and  holidays  for  good  con- 
duct and  good  work.  This  means  of  inciting  pupils  to 
do  well  is  not  so  reprehensible,  and  may  be  justified 
when  the  school  has  not  reached  that  moral  state  where 
higher  incentives  are  available,  but  the  promise  of 
special  privileges  to  those  who  are  perfect  in  attend- 
ance, or  who  reach  a  certain  standing  in  their  lessons,  is 
attended  with  evil  results  and  often  with  injustice.  The 
writer  remembers  that  once  upon  a  very  stormy  day  he 
saw  two  boys  entering  the  school  somewhat  after  nine 
o'clock.    It  turned  out  that  their  teacher  was  trying  to 


School  Incentives  103 

secure  100  per  cent,  in  attendance,  and  had  sent  one  of 
the  boys  out  in  the  rain  to  get  the  other  one,  who  was 
on  the  verge  of  sickness  with  a  threatening  cold,  and 
really  ought  to  have  been  in  bed.  This  suggests  the 
idea  that  100  per  cent,  in  attendance  may  cover  a 
multitude  of  sins.  It  is  entirely  creditable  for  a  child 
to  remain  at  home  when  he  is  too  ill  to  attend  school, 
and  it  is  creditable  also  to  the  parents  who  keep  him 
there.  If  the  promise  of  a  holiday,  or  immunity  from 
any  task  or  of  other  privilege,  induces  a  child  to  risk 
his  health,  a  great  wrong  is  committed. 

Again,  such  privileges  extended  on  the  ground  of 
excellence  in  scholarship  overlook  the  claims  of  the 
slower  but  none  the  less  faithful  students  who,  doing 
their  best,  yet  cannot  attain  the  required  standard. 
What  monstrous  wrongs  have  been  committed  in  this 
way !  The  writer  recalls  an  instance  in  the  high  school 
of  a  city  where  there  was  no  public  library.  The  school 
possessed  one  of  its  own ;  but  no  pupil  gaining  a  mark 
less  than  sixty-five  per  cent,  was  permitted  to  use 
the  library.  Those  who,  by  reason  of  limited  home 
advantages,  were  the  most  illiterate,  and  especially 
needed  to  make  the  acquaintance  of  good  books,  were 
prevented  from  doing  so.  In  the  same  high  school  all 
were  seated  in  their  several  rooms  according  to  their 
standing,  and  there  were  other  devices  for  emphasiziug 
the  difference  between  bright  and  slow  pupils  equally 
objectionable.  But  such  instances  are  rare  at  the  pres- 
ent time,  and,  as  exceptions,  are  useful  only  as  showing 
that  progress  is  really  being  made. 

4.  Commendation  and  reproof.  Actual  experience 
has  shown  that  constant  reminders  of  one's  faults  in  the 


104  School  Management 

form  of  rebuke  are  poor  incentives  toward  well-doing. 
To  refrain  from  reproof  is  often  more  helpful  than  to 
voice  what  the  pupil  knows  well  enough.  Wise  com- 
mendation is  vastly  better,  if  care  is  taken  to  say  always 
what  is  strictly  true  and  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  occasion 
jealousy  and  sense  of  partiality. 

5.  Punishments.  AVe  will  not  quarrel  wdth  those 
who  have  an  elaborate  creed  concerning  penalties,  and 
appeal  to  Scripture  or  the  moral  code  to  substantiate 
their  position.  There  is  no  doubt  that  in  all  nature 
there  are  penalties  for  wrong-doing,  and  children  may 
well  suffer  and  through  their  suffering  learn  to  refrain 
from  evil  practices.  But  punishments  as  an  incentive 
often  produce  a  negative  result  and  fail  entirely  in  their 
object.  Punishments  should  be  natural,  reasonable,  and 
applicable  to  the  offence. 

A  positive  and  constructive  policy  in  the  school  will 
find  little  need  of  corporal  punishment.  Theoretically 
there  are  extreme  cases  where  it  is  needed  for  the  good 
of  the  offender  and  as  a  deterrent  to  others.  If  all 
teachers  could  be  trusted  to  resort  to  that  measure  only 
in  the  case  of  that  incorrigible,  defiant,  and  insulting 
boy  whose  salvation  is  at  stake,  it  would  be  an  error  to 
forbid  the  use  of  corporal  punishment.  But  many 
towns  and  cities  have  abolished  it,  and  in  so  doing  have 
chosen  the  least  of  two  evils.  Whenever  this  is  done 
the  teachers  are  relieved  of  responsibility  in  the  use  of 
extreme  measures,  and  are  obliged  to  exercise  the  high- 
est skill  in  preserving  their  authority. 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  these  forms  of  artificial  incentive, 
while  not  to  be  condemned  wholly,  are  tainted  by  such 
evil  reputation  and  dangerous  associations  that  they  are 


School  Incentives  105 

to  be  looked  upon  with  suspicion  and  used  only  guard- 
edly and  sparingly. 

There  is  a  fundamental  principle  that  may  well  be 
enunciated  here  :  that  in  all  moral,  intellectual,  and 
aesthetic  progi-ess  there  is  a  movement  upward  from 
lower  to  higher  incentives.  The  moment  the  inferior 
means  of  advancement  has  served  its  purpose  it  is  to  be 
discarded  and  higher  and  better  means  are  to  be  sub- 
stituted. Thus  the  personality  is  trained,  disciplined, 
and  brought  nearer  to  perfection.  The  higher  moral 
aim  takes  the  place  of  the  lower  one.  The  book  of 
higher  order  supplants  the  inferior  one.  Works  of  art 
become  attractive  and  interesting  according  as  the  pupil 
has  reached  their  altitude  by  easy  steps. 

2. — Natural  and  Worthy  Incentives. 

1.  Respect  and  regard  for  teachers.  Here  is  a 
thoroughly  normal  and  proper  incentive.  It  harmo- 
nizes with  what  is  current  in  daily  life.  Employers  of 
labor,  officers  in  the  army,  and  leaders  of  political 
parties  may  oflfer  strong  incentives  in  themselves  if  they 
are  manly.  If  they  are  known  to  be  generous  and  ti*ue- 
hearted,  those  belonging  to  their  shop,  or  their  regiment, 
or  their  party  will  work  and  do  battle  for  them.  We 
have  shown  in  Chapters  I.  and  II.  what  a  teacher  should 
bo  by  nature  and  cultivation.  It  is  suggested  also  in 
the  last  chapter  that  the  personality  of  the  teacher  is 
the  most  potent  factor  in  school  government.  It  is  so 
because  it  offers  one  of  the  very  strongest  incentives 
that  the  school  can  give.  To  work  for  the  teacher  and 
for  the  sake  of  his  approbation  is  not  perhaps  the  high- 


IOC  School  Management 


t>" 


est  motive,  but  it  is  certainly  a  natural  one,  and  sad 
indeed  is  the  state  of  a  school  where  this  incentive  does 
not  operate. 

2.  The  esteem  of  fellow-pupils.  In  life  we  desire 
to  stand  well  with  our  associates  and  neighbors.  We 
wish  to  have  a  good  reputation  in  the  community.  AVe 
strive  to  perform  all  our  duties  as  citizen,  as  parent,  as 
a  man  of  business,  in  such  a  manner  that  men  believe 
in  our  honesty,  respect  our  abilities,  and  count  it  a 
pleasure  to  number  us  among  their  friends. 

This  kind  of  incentive  is  most  desirable  in  the  school. 
The  teacher  should  foster  it,  and  should  do  nothing  or 
say  nothing  to  make  one  portion  of  the  school  think  ill 
of  any  member.  If  a  pujDil  is  conscious  of  having  lost 
the  respect  and  confidence  of  his  mates,  one  strong  in- 
centive in  his  case  is  gone,  and  the  whole  school  is  the 
sufierer  thereb}'.  The  more  loyal  the  members  of  a 
class  are  to  each  other  the  more  they  esteem  the  school. 

Dean  Briggs,  of  Harvard  University,  speaking  on 
Discipline,  at  a  recent  meeting,  says  : 

"  In  every  school  there  should  be  an  effort  from  the 
start  to  make  a  youth  imbibe  that  wonderful  tonic  called 
school  spirit,  to  make  him  feel  that  from  the  moment 
he  enters  a  school  he  has  become  forever  a  part  of  it, 
one  of  its  makers,  and  that  throughout  his  life,  wherever 
he  goes,  he  takes  with  him,  dragging  or  exalting  it,  as 
the  case  may  be,  the  name  of  his  school.  Once  again  a 
deep  loyalty,  and  the  problem  of  discipline  is  gone." 
^^.  Interest  in  school  work.  Another  legitimate  and 
powerful  incentive  is  love  for  the  work  we  are  doing 
and  interest  in  it.  The  convict  in  the  prison  who  is 
compelled  to  do  uninteresting  work  day  after  day  finds 


School  Incentives  107 

no  incentive  in  it.  Sad  it  is  that,  under  the  present  sys- 
tem of  division  of  labor,  multitudes  of  men  and  women 
find  little  interest  in  their  work  except  that  it  furnishes 
them  a  livelihood  and  supports  the  home,  which  is,  it 
must  be  admitted,  an  important  incentive.  But  a 
strong  incentive  in  life  and  in  service  is  vocational  inter- 
est, founded  upon  the  intrinsic  nature  of  the  work  done, 
the  attractiveness  of  it,  the  variety  of  its  processes,  and 
the  beauty  and  worth  of  the  product.  The  world  will 
never  be  satisfied  until  such  interest  attaches  to  all  labor. 

In  the  modern  school-house  there  is  eveiy  oppoi-tu- 
nity  to  make  work  interesting,  and  thus  to  evoke  a  high 
order  of  effort.  The  greatest  change  from  the  old  edu- 
cation to  the  new  has  consisted  in  transferring  the  em- 
phasis from  the  questions  of  order  and  discipline  to 
those  of  fruitful  and  inspiring  work.  Give  children 
enough  to  do  of  what  they  like  to  do,  and  idleness  and 
wrong-doing  are  banished. 

Handwork  and  art  are  incentives  in  themselves. 
Says  Dr.  John  Dewey :  "  There  are  certain  reasons  for 
believing  that  the  type  of  interest  along  with  these  oc- 
cupations is  of  a  thoroughly  healthy,  permanent,  and 
really  educative  sort ;  and  that  by  giving  a  larger  place 
to  occupations,  we  find  an  excellent,  perhaps  the  very 
best  way  of  making  an  appeal  to  the  child's  spontane- 
ous interest,  and  j^et  have,  at  the  same  time,  some  guar- 
antee that  we  are  not  dealing  with  what  is  merely  pleas- 
ure-giving, exciting,  and  transient." 

The  skill  of  the  teacher  in  making  work  various,  not 
too  difficult,  and  well  organized  helps  to  utilize  this 
incentive  of  interest,  and  make  it  more  steady  and  con- 
tinuous. 


108  School  Management 

4.  Partnership  and  profit-sharing.  The  few  busi- 
ness establishments  in  this  country  that  have  adopted 
the  principle  of  profit-sharing,  and  distribute  to  all, 
even  the  humblest  employees,  a  certain  portion  of 
what  is  gained,  have  prospered  immensely.  They  have 
been  free  from  strikes  and  have  been  able  to  count  upon 
their  employees  for  the  most  cheerful  and  unreserviug 
service.  The  school  afibrds  considerable  opportunity 
for  employing  this  incentive.  We  have  already  alluded 
in  the  previous  chapter  to  School  City  plans  of  govern- 
ment. This  form  of  incentive  appears  to  work  well 
there.  There  are  many  ways  in  which  the  pupils  may 
share  in  the  management  of  the  school  beyond  the  mere 
questions  of  good  government.  The  room  is  to  be  kept 
in  order.  The  walls  are  to  be  decorated.  Visitors  are 
to  be  courteously  received  and  entertained.  Pupils  are 
to  bring  to  the  school  their  choicest  books,  pictures, 
and  toys  for  the  pleasure  of  others.  An  excursion  is  to 
be  j)lanned.  A  debating  society  to  be  organized  An 
athletic  club  is  to  be  supported.  Every  single  pupil  in 
the  room  should  be  on  some  committee  or  should  be  a 
member  of  some  organization.  He  should  feel  a  degree 
of  responsibility  for  what  is  done,  and  should  share  in 
the  satisfaction  and  credit  which  follow  good  work  of 
any  sort. 

5.  Consciousness  of  doing  right.  This  is  a  sort  of 
blanket  provision  and  is  submitted  as  a  concession  to 
those  who  are  accustomed  to  formulate  the  subject  of 
incentives  under  the  head  of  various  abstract  moral 
qualities.  The  pleasure  of  doing  right  is  undoubtedly  a 
real  pleasure.  It  is  associated  more  or  less  with  all 
those  incentives  which  we  have  classified  as  natural  and 


School  Ince?2tives  109 

legitimate.  It  is  doubted  if  the  conduct  or  endeavors  of 
pupils,  especially  the  very  young,  are  controlled  by  the 
question  of  right  and  wrong,  but  the  satisfaction  which 
everyone  receives  from  right  doing,  while  it  may  be 
more  or  less  unconscious,  is  still  a  growing  incentive, 
and  in  maturer  life  may  become  the  dominating  one. 

The  classification  of  incentives  which  we  have  given 
is  believed  to  be  candid  and  just.  The  reasons  for  re- 
jectiug  those  which  are  artificial  and  for  intensifpng 
and  strengthening  those  that  are  natural  have  been 
frankly  stated.  It  is  most  encouraging  to  believe  that 
American  schools  are  progressing  rapidly  in  the  direc- 
tion of  higher  incentives,  for  in  this  way  the  school 
may  more  easily  become  the  ally  of  the  home  and  the 
church,  and  may  do  its  perfect  work  in  training  the 
young  to  seek  with  all  their  heart  the  good,  the  beauti- 
ful, and  the  true. 

In  closing  this  topic  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  the 
most  advanced  theories  of  pedagogy  are  not  at  variance 
with  the  dictates  of  himianity  and  common-sense.  We 
are  able  to  reduce  the  problem  of  school  government  to 
much  simpler  terms  than  formerly,  because  we  can  view 
it  through  the  lens  of  real  life,  and  a  Ufe  that  is  strongly 
tinctured  by  philanthropy.  There  is  a  vast  difference, 
however,  between  a  school  for  children  and  that  most 
humane  and  admirably  managed  reformatory  for  youths 
at  Elmira.  A  recent  writer,  describing  that  institution, 
places  at  the  head  of  a  list  of  incentives  which  operate 
there  as  remedies  for  crime,  "the  desire  to  get  out." 
There  have  been  schools,  and  doubtless  there  are  some 
to-day,  where  the  desire  to  get  out  lias  been  a  dominant 
and  ever-present  one  ;  but  in  numberless  schools  there 


110  ScJwol  Management 

are  now  to  be  seen  pnpils  so  happy,  so  loyal,  so  enthu- 
siastic iu  their  work,  that  the  thought  of  getting  out 
seldom  enters  their  minds.  School  management  has  at- 
tained a  high  standard  of  perfection  when  every  child 
has  been  reached,  when  the  school  in  its  sentiments  and 
purpose  is  a  unit,  and  all  desire  to  stay  in. 

TOPICAL    REVIEW 

1.  The  relation  of  leadership  to  moral  training. 

2.  Add  to  the  list  of  objectionable  incentives  given. 

3.  The  relation  of  moral  progress  to  incentives. 

4.  What  incentives  are  most  helpful  in  character  training  ? 

5.  Why  is  interest  a  good  incentive  ? 

6.  The  satisfaction  of  well-doing. 


CHAPTER  IX 
THE  CURRICULUM 

1. — Making  the  Curriculum. 

Next  in  importance  to  the  personality  of  the  teacher 
and  a  knowledge  of  the  child  is  the  selection  and  ar- 
rangement of  materials  for  instraction.  The  quality  of 
daily  life  in  the  school  is  clearly  dependent  upon  the 
course  of  study  from  which  the  teacher  must  get  his 
guiding  points.  If  this  has  been  prepared  with  intelli- 
gence and  oflfers  broad,  fruitful,  and  interesting  work, 
the  teacher  has  the  opportunity  of  making  a  good 
school.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  prescribed  course  is 
narrow,  poorly  arranged,  and  lacking  in  suggestiveness 
and  richness,  even  the  best  teacher  will  be  seriously 
handicapped.  The  only  palliative  is  the  privilege, 
stated  or  implied,  that  the  teacher  may  use  the  curricu- 
lum any  way  he  pleases. 

Dr.  W.  T.  Harris  has  formulated  the  axiom  that  the 
course  of  study  should  present  at  all  points  a  cross-sec- 
tion of  human  knowledge  and  experience.  This  should 
not  be  taken  too  literally,  for  it  does  not  mean  that  at 
every  stage  all  parts  of  knowledge  should  have  equal 
place,  or  that  they  should  be  treated  with  equal  fulness. 
It  does,  however,  point  to  the  idea  that  all  sides  of  the 
child's  nature  are  to  be  considered  at  every  stage  in  his 

111 


112  School  Management 

education ;  that  no  power  is  to  become  atrophied  from 
disuse,  and  that  his  interests  are  to  be  very  influential 
as  a  guide  to  his  teachers.  For  ilhistration  :  Art  has 
made  a  place  for  itself  at  every  point  in  the  curriculum, 
but  it  is  the  art  suited  to  that  particular  age,  deter- 
mined by  what  the  child  can  express  by  means  of  pencil 
or  brush,  and  what  he  can  appreciate  and  enjoy  in  the 
way  of  art  objects.  There  must  be  very  careful  adapta- 
tion based  upon  the  experience  of  many  people  who 
have  made  observations  in  this  field.  This  is  a  practi- 
cal kind  of  child-study,  and  it  is  through  the  compari- 
son of  data  collected  by  different  persons  that  we  get 
the  perfect  adaptation  desired. 

Think  of  the  attempts  to  prepare  courses  of  study  in 
music  !  If  there  is  an  educational  quagmire  anywhere 
it  may  be  found  here.  The  cause  is  that  directors  of 
music,  with  very  limited  experience  with  young  children, 
make  a  scheme  which  seems  to  them  logical  and  is  so 
in  a  technical  sense.  It  is  not  psychological,  however, 
because  it  fails  to  interest  the  child  in  music;  it 
often  causes  him  to  hate  it.  The  best  authorities  in 
this  matter  are  those  elementary  teachers  who  have  made 
discoveries  in  methods  of  musical  instruction  and  whose 
children  are  delighted  not  only  to  sing,  but  to  know 
something  about  the  steps  in  musical  notation.  The 
special  teacher  or  director  is  in  this,  as  in  any  other 
subject,  the  one  to  gather  these  bits  of  experience  and 
give  them  unified,  progressive,  and  consistent  form. 

Perhaps  the  best  illustration  of  the  progress  which 
has  been  made  in  adapting  materials  of  thought  and 
study  to  the  capacity  and  interest  of  children  is  seen  in 
reading-books.    We  may  go  back  less  than  a  century 


The  Curriculum  113 

and  find  that  the  reading-book  for  higher  classes  con- 
tained largely  abstract  and  ethical  instruction,  with  here 
and  there  a  piece  containing  information.  There  was 
little  which  we  would  call  literature  to-day.  For  young 
children  the  attempt  was  made  to  dilute  and  simplify 
these  same  ethical  ideas,  and  the  matter  thus  produced, 
it  seems  to  us,  was  quite  inane,  not  to  say  ludicrous. 
Children's  literature  to-day  is  indeed  like  a  garden  full 
of  beauty  and  attractiveness. 

In  the  same  way,  if  we  were  to  examine  the  material 
needed  to  reach  every  growing  taste  and  aptitude,  we 
should  find  that  much  has  been  accomplished  in  the  at- 
tempt to  have  breadth  without  prolixity  and  confusion. 
The  occasional  grumbling  to  be  heard  to  the  effect  that 
too  many  things  are  taught  is  not  usually  well-founded. 
The  fault  is  in  the  selection,  arrangement,  and  method 
of  interpretation  of  the  curriculum.  Too  often  it  is  the 
lack  of  tact  and  good  judgment  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 
Here,  then,  we  have  a  very  practical  part  of  school  man- 
agement. The  making  of  the  curriculum  cannot  be  as- 
sumed by  an  outside  person  entirely,  be  it  a  county 
board  or  a  city  superintendent.  Every  teacher  is  inter- 
ested in  it,  for  he  has  much  at  stake.  The  cumculum 
must  manifestly  be  a  joint  product.  It  should  be  a 
progressive,  growing  thing,  and  even  at  its  best  should 
always  be  the  servant  of  the  teacher  and  never  his  mas- 
ter. Let  us  now  attempt  to  formulate  some  of  the 
most  important  considerations  to  be  kept  in  mind 
while  making  a  curriculum. 

1.  The  social  aim  should  dominate.  It  should  not  be 
a  catalogue  of  facts  or  even  of  investigations,  but  should 
be  a  plan  for  social  experience,  involving  action,  experi- 


114  School  Management 

ment,  doing,  constructiDg,  inventing,  comparing,  ob- 
servation, and  research.  It  should  bo  human  in  its 
trend,  and  should  lead  pupils  to  see  and  understand 
men  and  things  as  they  are,  and  to  know  something  of 
the  means  and  processes  that  have  made  them  so.  As 
Dr.  Butler  has  pointed  out,*  self-activity  and  evolution 
are  great  words  in  education  and  in  life.  They  should 
guide  us  in  framing  a  curriculum.  The  development  of 
the  child  and  the  satisfaction  of  his  needs  are  funda- 
mental ideas.  Healthful  industry  and  social  co-opera- 
tion are  watchwords  of  the  new  education.  If  the  full 
force  of  the  industrial  idea  is  brought  to  bear  in  making 
the  curriculum  the  schools  wall  come  to  have  a  new 
tone.  There  will  be  no  break  from  the  kindergarten  to 
the  primary  school.  It  will  not  be  necessary  to  set  off 
one  or  two  periods  a  week  for  handwork.  There  will 
be  more  or  less  handwork,  but  some  handwork  will  be 
pretty  nearly  continuous. 

2.  The  course  of  study  should  have  some  local  signifi- 
cance. Different  sections  of  the  country  have  varying 
climate,  productions,  and  industries.  Cities  and  towns 
often  have  a  distinctive  field  for  their  manufactures. 
The  studies  of  the  school  should  open  the  minds  of  the 
pupils  to  what  is  going  on  around  them.  If  the  place 
is  a  railroad  centre  they  should  know  something  about 
the  traffic  which  is  provided  for.  If  it  is  a  port  of  entry 
some  place  should  be  given  to  the  consideration  of  im- 
ports, the  conditions  causing  such  importations,  and 
the  uses  which  they  serve. 

Each  section  has  its  own  historic  coloring,  and  it  is 
right  that  the  children  should  be  imbued  with  the  tra- 
*  "The  Meaning  of  Education." 


The  Curriculum  115 

ditions  and  spirit  of  their  own  town,  county,  or  State. 
The  history  of  the  Civil  War,  designed  for  all  sec- 
tions, should  be  entirely  fair  in  presenting  the  particu- 
lar kind  of  patriotism  which  operated  respectively  in 
the  North  and  South.  The  fauna  and  flora  of  every 
locality  should  appear  in  the  school  curriculum.  It 
has  also  come  to  be  felt  that  courses  for  rural  schools 
should  present  a  field  of  study  appropriate  to  agricult- 
ural pursuits.  The  arithmetic  should  not  deal  wholly 
with  buying  and  selling,  but  with  the  many  quantitative 
problems  of  the  soil,  of  stock-raising,  of  supply  and  de- 
mand, of  yield  and  profit.  The  nature  study  should 
enter  into  the  chemistry  of  soils  and  the  particular  in- 
gredients required  for  difi'erent  crops,  fertilizers  and  the 
relative  value  of  farm  products,  stock-feeding,  etc.  All 
these  things  may  have  high  educational  value,  and  at 
the  same  time  make  school-work  more  useful  and  helpful 
in  fostering  the  productive  life  of  the  community. 

3.  The  law  of  association  must  be  respected.  There 
must  be  as  much  natural  correlation  as  possible.  This 
is  economical ;  it  is  also  consistent  with  the  doctrine  of 
interest.  There  should  be  threads  of  correlation  mak- 
ing the  work  of  each  week,  each  month,  and  each  term 
more  or  less  a  unit.  Geography,  however  scientific  it 
may  be,  is  still  a  background  for  history.  "We  do  not 
know  any  portion  of  the  earth  thoroughly  until  we  see 
what  human  life  it  has  produced  and  how  people  and 
environment  have  reacted  upon  each  other.  Reading, 
drawing,  and  language  come  to  the  aid  of  every  other 
subject.  The  child  needs  them  and  so  we  supply  the 
need.  Both  in  grammar  and  secondary  schools  this 
principle  is  too  much  neglected.     Departmental  teach- 


116  School  Management 

ing  does  not  favor  correlation  unless  special  provision  is 
made  whereby  teachers  of  subjects  confer  together  and 
agree  to  correlate. 

4.  The  course  should  have  continuity.  Care  should 
be  taken  that  the  child's  interests  should  be  consulted, 
rather  than  the  teacher's.  Some  of  the  courses  con- 
structed upon  the  evolutionary  culture  epoch  basis  have 
not  been  tested  long  enough  to  substantiate  their  claim 
to  primacy.  Nothing  could  be  more  interesting  to  the 
adult  mind  than  to  trace  the  progress  of  mankind 
through  its  several  stages  of  culture.  There  is  proba- 
bly no  objection  to  arranging  a  course  of  study  for 
primary  schools  upou  this  plan,  provided  those  ideal 
forms  of  life  and  activity  are  followed  which  are  possi- 
ble with  children.  A  strictly  logical  course  is  apt  to 
fail  in  meeting  the  needs  of  the  young,  so  that  this 
kind  of  continuity  cannot  be  arbitrarily  enforced. 
Each  subject  has  its  natural  unfolding,  and  there  is  an 
order  of  subjects  which  experience  has  found  to  be  fea- 
sible. For  the  sake  of  correlation,  however,  it  is  often 
wise  to  break  an  historical  or  even  a  geographical  se- 
quence. It  would  be  folly  to  teach  literature  in  the 
common  schools  according  to  a  chronological  scheme. 
Usually  the  reading  may  be  selected  with  reference  to 
illuminating  and  enriching  the  other  subjects,  although 
there  are  many  exceptions  to  this  nile.  There  are  mas- 
terpieces of  literature  so  full  of  inspiration  and  beauty 
that  a  teacher  will  wish  to  use  them  independently  and 
freely  for  the  sake  not  only  of  what  they  teach,  but 
for  the  tone  they  give  to  the  school. 

5.  The  course  of  study  should  be  prepared  by  the 
superintendent  assisted  by  his  principals.     The  princi- 


The  Curriculum  117 

pals  in  turn  should  gather  from  their  teachers  as  many 
suggestions  as  possible,  dictated  by  their  experience, 
and  should  make  the  best  possible  use  of  them.  The 
reasons  for  this  plan  have  already  been  suggested. 
If  all  have  a  part,  and  realize  that  they  have  a  part,  in 
framing  the  curriculum,  there  will  be  a  sense  of  pro- 
prietorship and  approval  which  is  needed  to  make  it  a 
success. 

Presumably  there  will  be  new  experience  and  new 
suggestions  so  that  a  revision  is  needed  at  least  once  in 
two  years.  In  this  way  interest  is  kept  alive,  mistakes 
are  corrected,  the  work  of  new  teachers  is  recognized, 
and  so  there  is  no  stagnation. 

6.  It  should  be  flexible.  While  the  course  as  a  skele- 
ton should  be  quite  binding,  it  should  be  fi-amed  so  that 
in  minor  details  considerable  freedom  is  left  to  the 
teacher.  In  Chapter  IV.,  on  grading  and  promotion,  we 
have  advocated  supplementary  topics  so  that  abler 
pupils  may  always  be  employed  in  a  more  intensive 
study  of  the  subject.  In  planning  a  curriculum  some 
attention  should  be  given  to  this  feature,  although  for 
the  most  part  the  teacher  himself  must  organize  and 
carry  out  this  idea. 

Although  a  course  of  study  for  a  town  or  city  may  be 
used  in  all  schools,  it  should  be  understood  that  both 
in  a  quantitative  and  a  qualitative  sense  some  schools 
can  do  more  than  others.  In  this  sense,  therefore,  the 
course  must  be  flexible,  and  principals  and  teachers  are 
to  administer  it  in  accordance  with  their  environment 
and  the  degi'ee  of  home  culture  which  the  children 
bring  with  them. 

7.  There  may  be  rotation.     To  avoid  overcrowding, 


118  School  Management 

it  is  justifiable  to  omit  a  given  subject  for  a  year  or  half- 
year.  This  practice  in  some  quarters  has  been  called 
**  rotation  of  crops."  Is  there  any  good  reason  why 
arithmetic  should  command  so  much  time  every  year  of 
the  child's  life  ?  Might  not  geography  alternate  with 
nature  study  for  a  half-year,  and  could  not  even  music 
and  drawing,  in  their  technical  phases  at  least,  have 
their  turn  ?  This  suggests  that  educators  need  to  be 
open-minded  and  ready  to  reconsider  any  questions 
aifecting  the  life,  health,  and  nurture  of  children,  even 
though  they  have  to  discard  old  practices. 

2. — Using  the  Curriculum. 

The  value  of  anything  consists  in  the  way  it  is  used. 
Any  machine,  if  not  properly  understood,  is  often  of 
very  little  service.  This  is  especially  true  of  such  ed- 
ucational means  as  a  curriculum,  which,  in  itself,  is  a 
dead  thing,  and  must  be  clothed  before  it  has  meaning 
and  value.  The  teacher  must  put  energy  and  life  into 
it,  in  order  to  make  it  yield  its  proper  fruit.  Edu- 
cation is  a  vital  process,  and  is  largely  accomplished  by 
one  living  soul  acting  upon  another.  The  Committee 
of  twelve  on  niral  schools  introduces  a  sample  course  of 
study  as  follows  :  "  The  course  of  study  is  the  measur- 
ing-rod or  scale  to  determine  at  what  point  in  the  ele- 
mentary course  a  pupil's  work  has  arrived.  It  should 
not  be  used  as  the  procrustean  bed  on  which  to  stretch 
the  work  of  the  school  in  order  to  give  uniformity." 
This  may  be  taken  as  the  attitude  of  educators  gener- 
ally in  regard  to  the  function  of  the  course  of  study  as 
restricting  the  teacher.     Courage  and  enterprise  on  the 


IVie  CuiTiciiliim  119 

part  of  principals  and  teachers  are  needed  in  order  that 
every  curriculum  may  be  interpreted  in  the  spirit  of  the 
words  above  quoted.  There  are  various  ways  iri  which 
a  course  of  study  may  be  used  successfully. 

1.  There  should  be  a  comprehension  of  the  whole 
scheme.  Every  teacher  belonging  to  a  school  system 
should  read  with  care  the  whole  curriculum,  giving  at- 
tention to  the  order  of  topics  in  the  several  subjects  and 
the  various  opportunities  for  correlation  which  are 
manifest. 

In  the  more  essential  subjects  of  geogi'aphy,  history, 
and  science  it  would  seem  wise  for  every  teacher,  even 
the  kindergartner,  to  have  a  good  working  knowledge  of 
each  subject  from  beginning  to  end.  This  woiild  mean 
some  work  for  several  years,  possibly,  but  it  could  be 
pursued  in  such  an  interesting  manner  as  to  afford  much 
satisfaction.  This  is  one  way  in  which  the  teacher 
would  be  able  to  approach  the  ideal  suggested  in 
Chapter  III. 

2.  The  teacher  should  explore  thoroughly  the  particu- 
lar field  in  which  he  is  working.  By  no  other  means  can 
he  know  what  the  curi'iculum  offers,  and  the  best  way  to 
select  material  for  daily  use.  For  example :  If  the 
teacher  is  to  deal  with  Indian  life  he  would  want  to 
read  the  best  authorities,  and  visit  museums  where  he 
can  study  at  first  hand  Indian  clothing,  implements,  and 
methods  of  domestic  life.  With  the  aid  of  pupils  quite 
a  collection  of  materials  can  be  made,  and  so  a  respec- 
table Indian  museum  can  be  formed.  Supposing  the 
teacher  has  to  cover  some  portion  of  American  history, 
there  is  opened  a  wide  field  for  study  and  reading.  Not 
only  history,  but  oratory,  poetry,  and  historical  fiction 


120  School  Management 

are  to  be  included.  lu  short,  every  teacher  should  be- 
come, to  a  good  extent,  a  specialist  in  that  portion  of 
the  curriculum  assigned  to  ftim,  in  whatever  grade  it 
may  be. 

3.  Not  only  in  making  but  in  using  the  curriculum 
there  should  be  selection  and  elimination.  The  teacher, 
having  a  better  knowledge  of  his  own  domain  than  those 
who  framed  the  course  of  study,  is  permitted  both  to 
add  and  to  subtract.  He  will  use  this  privilege  in  such 
a  way  as  to  meet  the  requirements  of  his  own  class  with- 
out going  too  far  from  the  general  plan.  Some  courses 
offer  twice  as  much  as  a  teacher  can  expect  to  teach 
well.  He  must  assume  the  right  to  use  some  discretion 
here. 

4.  A  good  means  of  economy  in  teaching  is  the  use 
of  types.  Those  should  be  selected  which  are  repre- 
sentative of  a  large  class  of  facts  and  which  are  rich  in 
illustration  of  the  characteristics  of  that  class.  In 
teaching  cities,  Lowell,  Rochester,  MinneapoHs,  Kansas 
City,  Atlanta,  Memphis,  and  Los  Angeles  would  serve 
as  types  of  a  considerable  number  of  cities  having  the 
same  or  similar  natural  advantages,  as  well  as  like  com- 
mercial and  industrial  interests.  Boston,  New  York, 
Philadelphia,  Washington,  and  Chicago  are  sui  generis, 
and  may  be  taught  vdth  special  attention  to  those  feat- 
ures for  which  they  have  an  exclusive  claim.  The  same 
principle  applies  in  nature  study,  in  biography,  and  the 
study  of  institutions.  It  may  also  be  applied  in  litera- 
ture, architecture,  sculpture,  and  painting.  It  may  be 
made  a  means  of  organizing  in  the  mind  clearly  defined 
standards,  as  well  as  a  working  nomenclature.  This  is 
closely  related   to   correlation,    for   through   intensive 


The  Curriculum  121 

study  of  men  and  things  we  can  trace  more  thoroughly 
the  relations  which  the  child  bears  to  the  industrial  life 
of  the  village  or  city  in  which  he  lives,  or  to  the  farm 
where  he  gets,  possibly,  the  better  part  of  his  educa- 
tion. The  writer  has  never  been  able  to  discover  the 
slightest  contradiction  between  that  correlation  which 
binds  one  piece  of  knowledge  to  another  and  those 
manifold  relationships  which  connect  the  child  with  his 
environment  and  through  an  acquaintance  of  which  he 
gains  self-realization.  Dr.  Charles  McMm-ry  *  declares 
that : 

"  Correlation  at  once  discards  the  idea  of  encyclo- 
paedic knowledge  as  an  aim  of  school  education.  It 
puts  a  higher  estimate  upon  related  ideas  and  a  lower 
one  upon  that  of  complete  or  encyclopaedic  information. 
All  the  cardinal  branches  of  education,  indeed,  shall  be 
taught  in  the  school ;  but  only  the  essential,  the  typi- 
cal, will  be  selected,  and  an-  exhaustive  knowledge  of 
any  subject  is  out  of  the  question.  Correlation  will  put 
a  constant  check  upon  over-accumulation  of  facts,  and 
will  rather  seek  to  strengthen  an  idea  by  association 
with  familiar  things  than  to  add  a  new  fact  to  it." 

5.  The  best  teachers  keep  a  plan  and  progress  book. 
This  is  a  significant  means  of  using  the  course  of  study 
skilfully.  After  gaining  a  full  knowledge  of  the  field  it 
is  well  to  place  in  a  blank-book  a  plan  of  teaching  for 
a  week  or  a  month.  This  may  be  amplified  and  worked 
out  in  detail  for  each  day's  teaching.  Mr.  Burtis  C.  Ma- 
gee  t  writes  upon  the  subject  of  plan-books  as  follows : 

"It  is  seen  more  clearly  that  they  ofi'er,  when  well 

*  "-Elements  of  General  Methoil." 

f  "Plaa  and  Progress  Books,"  in  School  Work  for  June,  1902. 


122  School  Management 

done,  a  method  of  preparation  of  the  lessons,  a  means 
of  giving  content  to  the  grades,  and  of  dovetailing  the 
subjects  to  one  another,  that  would  scarcely  be  accom- 
plished as  well  by  other  means.  The  great  danger  to 
be  avoided  in  an-anging  a  system  of  plan-books  is  to 
prevent  an  unreasonable  amount  of  clerical  labor,  and 
of  research,  from  falling  upon  class  teachers.  After  a 
set  of  plans  and  prospectuses  have  once  been  arranged, 
however,  the  labor  of  their  preparation  is  reduced  to  a 
minimum. 

"  Experience  shows  that  young  teachers  meet  with  their 
chief  difficulty  in  instruction  and  consequent  difficulty 
in  discipline  from  lack  of  systematic  and  progressive 
outline  and  plan  work.  To  such  a  teacher  a  daily  plan 
book  prepared  with  some  detail  is  a  great  help.  Such 
a  book  may  be  examined  by  the  principal  daily,  or  at 
frequent  intervals,  and  suggestions  and  dii'ections  may 
be  made  therein  by  the  principal.  It  affords  an  oppor- 
tunity for  the  teacher  and  the  principal  to  meet  on  the 
common  ground  of  a  concrete  difficulty  whenever  one 
occui's.  Much  time  and  energy  is  likely  to  be  saved  by 
this  means,  which  otherwise  might  be  devoted  to  matters 
upon  which  the  teacher  needed  no  assistance." 

What  has  been  said  about  the  course  of  study  belongs 
to  that  middle  ground  which  separates  the  teacher  from 
the  actual  work  of  teaching.  If  there  were  no  course 
'  of  study,  and  in  many  cases  it  would  be  quite  as  well  if 
there  were  none,  the  teacher's  relation  to  the  child  would 
be  short-circuited,  and  the  instruction  would  be  at  first 
hand,  but  when  teachers  are  acting  under  commission 
by  a  central  authority  it  becomes  very  necessary  to  keep 
in  mind  the  suggestions  we  have  made.    There  are  many 


TJic  Curriculum  123 

other  things  which  will  occur  to  a  person  of  experience 
as  bearing  upon  this  matter.  It  has  not  been  the  pur- 
pose here  to  exhaust  the  subject,  but  simply  to  indicate 
the  general  importance  of  the  freedom  of  the  teacher 
and  the  use  by  him  of  sound  discretion  and  fine  adapta- 
tion. 

TOPICAL   REVIEW 

1.  The  essential  purpose  of  the  curriculum. 

2.  What  progress  has  been  made  in  adapting  material  to  young 
children  ? 

3.  In  what  sense  are  the  activities  of  the  school  social? 

4.  Should  agriculture  be  studied,  and  why? 

5.  The  limits  of  correlation  and  continuity. 

6.  How  should  the  curriculum  be  made  ? 

7.  The  advantages  of  rotation  in  subjects. 

8.  Selection  and  elimination. 

9.  How  can  types  be  used  ? 

10.  Value  of  plan  and  progress  books. 


CHAPTER  X 
THE  DAILY  PROGRAMME 

In  deciding  what  constitutes  a  good  school  programme 
we  must  correlate  much  that  has  been  suggested  in 
former  chapters.  To  be  consistent  and  not  violate  our 
purpose  to  make  the  school  a  good  type  of  social  life, 
wherein  the  individual  personality  is  the  object  of 
culture,  we  must  permit  nothing  to  come  into  the  daily 
programme  which  does  not  favor  health  and  cheerful 
activity.  There  must  be  no  undue  strain  or  fatigue. 
Pupils  must  be  asked  to  do  only  what  they  can  do 
without  fretting  or  worry.  In  short,  the  day,  from 
beginning  to  end,  must  present  a  picture  of  well-ordered 
living  and  accomplishment.  How  clearly  the  teacher's 
good  sense  and  skill  are  reflected  in  the  daily  trans- 
actions of  the  school !  What  need  of  foresight,  of  calm 
deliberation,  sustained  by  enthusiastic  and  energetic 
direction  of  work  1  The  writer  can  think  of  school- 
rooms where  there  is  always  quiet,  steady  work,  where 
the  teacher  speaks  in  pleasant,  natural  tones,  and  the 
pupils  respond  in  the  same  manner.  There  is  also  in 
mind  more  than  one  instance  where  there  was  lack  of 
plan  or  preparation,  where  the  school-room  seemed  to 
be  in  a  state  of  upheaval  and  chaos,  and  where,  in  some 
cases,  there  was  no  hope  of  betterment. 

The  making  of  the  daily  programme  requires  the  best 

124 


The  Daily  Programme  125 

possible  suggestions  from  superintendents  and  prin- 
cipals worked  out  in  detail  by  the  teachers  and  adapted 
to  the  needs  of  their  own  classes.  A  strictly  uniform 
programme  for  a  system  of  town  schools,  or  even  for  a 
large  graded  school,  savors  too  much  of  the  despatching 
of  trains,  or  the  manoeuvres  of  a  military  post. 


1. — Tlie  Prorjramme  a  Cross-section  of  the  School. 

As  the  curriculum  is  in  some  senses  a  cross-section  of 
human  knowledge,  so  the  daily  programme  is  a  cross- 
section  of  school  life.  If  we  visit  a  school  for  an  entire 
day  we  see  a  representative  exhibit  of  the  school  in  its 
environment,  the  teacher,  the  pupils,  the  things  they  do, 
and  the  life  they  lead.  We  get  a  pretty  distinct  im- 
pression of  the  spirit  that  animates  the  members  of  the 
school  and  find  that  our  estimate  of  its  merits  is  in- 
fluenced very  much  by  the  interest  and  heartiness,  as 
well  as  the  harmony,  shown  in  the  various  school  rela- 
tions. We  see  with  what  degree  of  pleasure  pupils  enter 
school  in  the  morning,  and  in  what  condition  they  pass 
to  their  homes  at  night.  These  two  items  are  of  im- 
mense importance.  We  observe  Avhether  there  is  a  good 
distribution  of  their  time  for  study,  for  recitation,  for 
recreation,  and  play.  We  take  note  of  the  ventilation 
and  cleanliness  of  the  room,  as  well  as  the  good  taste 
shown  in  the  arrangement  of  furniture,  the  display  of 
work,  decoration,  etc.  Any  lack  of  definiteness  and  un- 
derstanding between  teacher  and  pupil  about  the  kind 
and  amount  of  work  to  be  done,  or  any  hitching  or  con- 
fusion in  the  progress  of  the  programme  is  offensive  to 
the  critical  observer. 


126  School  Management 

2. — TJie  Opening  of  School. 

One  can  often  form  a  good  opinion  of  the  merit  of  a 
school  by  what  takes  place  during  the  first  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes  in  the  morning.  It  is  unfortunate  that  visitors 
are  sometimes  present  in  the  school-room  while  the 
pupils  are  coming  in  and  that  the  teacher  arrives  only  a 
few  moments  before  nine  o'clock.  I  say  it  is  unfortunate. 
It  might  not  be  so  in  every  case,  but  it  would  sometimes 
reveal  a  condition  in  the  school  which  would  not  be  to 
the  credit  of  the  teacher.  If  the  pupils  came  in  noisily 
and  were  rough  and  discourteous  in  their  conduct  it 
would  be  a  bad  beginning  of  the  day,  and  would  preju- 
dice the  mind  of  the  visitor  unfavorably. 

It  is  not  well  to  prevent  all  social  intercourse  of 
pupils  while  in  the  school-room.  Courteous  greeting 
and  conversation  when  they  enter  the  room  is  a  good 
element,  but  for  a  few  moments  before  nine  o'clock 
there  should  be  quiet  and  an  opportunity  to  get  things 
in  readiness  for  the  day's  work.  It  does  not  seem  just 
to  make  pupils  tardy  who  are  in  their  seats  by  nine 
o'clock,  no  matter  what  signals  are  given  before  that 
time  for  quiet  study.  In  a  former  chapter  reference  has 
been  made  to  the  value  of  the  opening  exercises  when 
properly  conducted.  As  a  part  of  the  daily  programme 
these  exercises  have  a  distinct  and  special  value.  When 
it  is  permitted  to  have  a  devotional  exercise  there  should 
be  reading  by  teacher  of  a  portion  of  Scripture,  without 
comment,  followed  by  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  the  singing 
of  an  appropriate  sacred  song.  It  seems  very  unfortunate 
that  there  should  ever  be  an  objection  to  an  exercise  so 
universal  in  its  character. 


The  Daily  Programme  127 

In  communities  where  objections  are  made  to  such 
an  exercise,  it  is  still  feasible  to  have  selections  of  choice 
literature  of  ethical  import  read  by  the  teacher,  or  bet- 
ter still,  recited  by  the  jDupils,  with  appropriate  singing. 
There  are  many  ways  of  varying  the  opening  exercise 
in  order  to  make  it  more  interesting  and  instructive, 
but,  as  a  rule,  ten  minutes  are  long  enough  to  serve  the 
purpose  intended.  No  one  will  deny  that  a  school  is  a 
better  school  where  the  opening  is  attended  by  good  or- 
der and  lessons  of  inspiration  and  helpfulness. 

3. — Tlie  Length  of  Sessions. 

It  is  difficult  in  educational  work  to  specify  the  abso- 
lutely best  thing  because  of  the  many  varying  conditions 
under  which  work  is  done.  At  the  present  time  most 
public  schools  have  a  session  extending  from  9  a.m. 
to  11.30  A.M.  for  young  children,  and  not  later  than 
12  noon  for  older  classes.  There  is  also  an  after- 
noon session  of  at  least  one  hour  and  a  half.  The 
majority  of  high  schools  have  one  session,  varying  in 
length  from  four  to  five  houi-s,  with  an  intermission  of 
about  one-half  hour  for  lunch.  Most  private  schools, 
both  elementary  and  secondary,  and  a  few  public  schools, 
have  one  session  of  from  four  to  five  hours,  with  not  less 
than  one-half  hour  for  lunch.  The  writer  believes  that 
in  those  communities  where  a  very  large  proportion  of 
the  people  are  well-to-do  and  wish  to  provide  for  their 
children  outside  instruction  in  music,  dancing,  physical 
training,  or  to  give  them  out-of-door  exercise  during  the 
entire  year  in  riding,  rowing,  games,  or  athletics,  the 
schools  can  be  administered  with  one  session  in  a  way 


128  School  Management 

to  serve  nearly  all  interests.  lu  Brookline,  Mass.,  the 
session  for  grammar  and  high  schools  is  from  8.30  to 
1.30,  with  an  intermission  of  a  half -hour  for  lunch,  and 
with  gymnasium  and  games  at  some  other  time  during 
the  session.  The  success  of  this  plan  depends  upon 
the  care  given  to  the  lunch  period,  and  the  extent  to 
which  jrapils  who  cannot  go  home  are  provided  either 
at  school  or  from  home  with  a  palatable  lunch.  It 
permits  teachers  who  live  at  a  distance  to  come  and 
perform  their  day's  work,  do  what  is  necessary  in  the 
school-room  for  the  next  day's  work,  and  then  go  home 
at  an  hour  somewhat  earlier  than  is  possible  under 
the  two-session  plan. 

But  there  are  marked  advantages  in  having  morning 
and  afternoon  sessions  in  public  schools.  This  plan 
permits  children  to  have  their  mid-day  meal  with  their 
parents  at  the  hour  most  convenient  in  the  houses  of 
Avorking-people.  It  distributes  the  work  over  the  larger 
l^ortion  of  the  day,  and  in  this  respect,  as  well  as  in  the 
regularity  of  meals,  is  thought  to  be  more  hygienic. 
The  influence  of  the  school  is  more  extended  over  that 
class  of  children  who,  when  not  in  school,  are  on  the 
street.  It  also  makes  it  possible  to  have  more  study  in 
the  school  and  less  at  home,  which  is  always  desirable. 

The  Horace  Mann  School  of  the  Teachers  College  of 
New  York,  a  private  day-school  numbering  a  thousand 
boys  and  girls,  has  in  its  elementary  department  a  ses- 
sion extending  from  nine  to  one.  There  are  fifteen  min- 
utes for  lunch  about  midway  of  the  sessions.  In  the 
high  school  the  hours  are  from  nine  until  two,  with  an 
intermission  of  forty  minutes  for  lunch.  In  this  school 
there  is  only  a  limited  opportunity  for  study  periods, 


The  Daily  Programme  129 

and  above  the  second  grade  some  little  work  is  required 
at  home,  increasing  in  amount  through  the  successive 
grades.  Inasmuch  as  many  of  the  pupils  come  from 
a  long  distance,  and  the  parents  wish  to  have  them  with 
them  during  a  portion  of  the  afternoon,  these  hours  seem 
to  be  the  best  that  could  be  devised.  There  is  hand- 
work in  every  grade,  and  practically  every  day.  There 
are  also  physical  exercises  daily.  These,  with  careful  ar- 
rangement of  the  progi'amme  in  reference  to  relief  through 
change,  and  by  skilled  teaching  and  management,  make 
the  scheme  effective,  if  not  ideal.  This  instance  is 
cited  to  show  that,  after  all,  it  is  not  so  much  the  length 
of  the  school-hours  as  it  is  a  judicious  use  of  the  time 
and  the  efficiency  of  the  instruction  that  determines 
the  merit  of  the  programme. 

4. — Tlie  Number  of  Classes. 

In  graded  schools  it  is  not  difficult  to  provide  for  all 
necessary  classes,  unless  there  has  been  adopted  and 
put  in  operation  in  its  extreme  form  some  system  of  in- 
dividual teaching  or  iBne  grading  which,  however  good  it 
may  be  in  theory,  does  considerable  harm  to  the  school 
as  a  whole. 

In  ungi'aded  schools  the  problem  is  more  serious.  It 
has,  however,  been  found  possible  to  grade  the  rural 
elementary  school  upon  a  three-class  basis  in  such  a  way 
as  to  give  ample  time,  not  only  for  the  conduct  of  recita- 
tions, but  for  the  seat- work  and  study  periods  as  well. 
For  example,  if  the  school  is  divided  into  three  divis- 
ions in  English,  numbered  A,  B,  C,  and  a  half-hour 
is  assigned  to  that  subject,  the  teacher  would  devote 


130  School  Management 

eight  minutes  to  the  A  division,  and  then  assign  them 
■written  work  at  their  desks.  He  would  give  a  some- 
what longer  period  to  the  B  division,  and  then  assign 
them  some  seat-work.  There  would  be  a  still  longer 
period  for  the  C,  or  lowest  division,  which  would  need 
the  most  instruction.  The  same  plan  would  be  pursued 
in  reading ;  the  A  and  B  divisions  having  a  period  for 
oral  reading  and  a  somewhat  longer  one  for  silent  read- 
ing. A  similar  method  could  be  followed  in  the  other 
subjects,  although  the  writer  believes  that  in  handwork 
the  whole  school  could  be  engaged  at  the  same  time, 
and,  in  most  cases,  could  do  the  same  kind  of  work,  as  in 
basketry,  modelling,  or  painting.  The  programme  for 
the  rural  school  conducted  upon  this  scheme,  with  proper 
attention  to  recreative  games  and  gymnastics,  may  be 
made  as  highly  professional  as  in  a  graded  school. 

5. — Study,  Recitation,  and  Recreation. 

Here  we  have  three  elements  of  almost  equal  im- 
portance. The  doctrine  of  self-activity  requires  us  to 
train  pupils  to  study,  and  in  no  place  can  this  be  done 
as  well  as  in  the  school-room,  by  the  teacher.  The 
recitation,  also,  is  essential,  but  may  be  longer  or  shorter 
according  to  circumstances.  Kecitations  are  often  too 
long.  Both  teachers  and  pupils  lose  the  power  of  close 
attention  ;  interest  wanes,  and  the  result  is  often  painful 
to  witness.  There  must  also  be  recreative  exercises  as 
well  as  relief  through  change  of  work.  Attention  to  this 
matter  is  imperative  in  primary  classes,  and  should  not 
be  neglected  anywhere. 

Those  lessons  which  involve  the  greatest  effort  should 


The  Daihj  Programvie  131 

come  earliest  in  the  day.  There  is  decided  difference  of 
opinion  as  to  which  subjects  are  the  hardest,  and,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  it  is  likely  that  M'ith  some  teachers  one 
subject  is  most  difficult  and  with  others  a  different  sub- 
ject causes  the  most  fatigue.  The  consensus  of  opinion 
seems  to  be  that  mathematics  and  gj-mnastics,  if  vigor- 
ously taken,  are  the  most  tiring.  Some  experiments 
have  shown  that  drawing  and  music  are  especially  weary- 
ing. As  said  before,  doubtless  the  method  of  teaching 
has  much  to  do  with  these  particular  effects.  It  is  sug- 
gested that  the  teacher,  by  studying  closely  the  indi- 
viduals of  his  school,  can  determine  which  are  best  for 
the  early  part  of  the  day  and  which  for  the  latter.  The 
remaining  exercises  would  naturally  fall  between. 

All  pupils  should  have  some  time  for  quiet  study 
daily.  Between  periods  of  intense  study  and  recitations 
there  should  be  a  brief  time  for  moving  about  the  rooms, 
looking  at  new  books  and  pictures,  songs  and  games, 
or  whatever  the  teacher  may  think  to  be  the  most  help- 
ful at  the  time.  He  will  learn  much  from  his  pupils  as 
to  the  best  forms  of  recreative  relief.  These  breaks  in 
the  tedium  of  the  school  programme  are  not  merely  for 
the  sake  of  hygiene,  but  for  the  aid  they  give  to  good 
order,  pleasure  in  work,  and  social  culture. 

6. —  Work  and  Fatigiie. 

It  is  self-evident  that  good,  faithful  work,  here  as  else- 
where, must  produce  fatigue.  There  is  nothing  in  the 
idea  of  fatigue  alarming  or  to  be  avoided  It  is  doubt- 
ful if  anything  good  in  the  world  could  be  accomplished 
without  it.     Children  who  are  not  permitted  to  Avork  up 


132  School  Management 

to  the  point  of  fatigue  are  in  clanger  of  becoming  weak 
and  effeminate.  When  hard  work  begins  there  is  a 
beginning  of  fatigue,  which  increases  up  to  a  certain 
point,  then  often  ceases.  The  point  at  which  it  ceases 
is  known  as  the  intellectual  second  breath.  This  is 
really  the  danger-point.  Nature  here  seems  to  cease 
her  warning  through  a  sense  of  fatigue,  and  the  worker 
may  go  on  insensible  to  weariness  until  quite  exhausted. 
It  is  thought  that  working  under  the  second  breath 
is  in  many  cases  beneficial,  if  not  too  long  continued. 
If  often  indulged  it  causes  the  worker,  especially  if 
3'oung,  permanent  and  irreparable  injury.  Here  we 
see  the  bearing  of  what  has  just  been  said  about  the 
necessity  of  periods  of  recreation  in  connection  with 
periods  of  fatigue  and  weariness.  The  former  is  the 
legitimate  attendant  upon  hard  work.  Weariness  may 
be  caused  by  lack  of  interest  and  monotony. 

"  Fatigue  results  from  the  loss  of  energy  at  our  dis- 
posal; its  amount  is  measured  by  the  reduction  in  our 
power  to  work.  The  feeling  of  weariness,  on  the  other 
hand,  may  result  from  the  monotony  of  routine  without 
at  all  being  accompanied  by  any  material  loss  of  energy. 
A  child  at  play  may  become  fatigued,  but  never  weary  of 
his  activity  ;  a  boy  engaged  at  work  in  which  he  takes 
no  interest  may  become  so  weary  in  fifteen  minutes  that 
he  can  accomplish  nothing."  *  These  words  suggest  an 
interesting  inquiry,  good  at  any  time  and  full  of  interest 
to  the  growing  teacher.  When  children  begin  to  be 
restless,  inattentive,  and  disinterested  the  teacher  may 
well  look  into  the  source  of  the  trouble.  Has  the  air 
become  foul  ?     Is  the  room  too  warm  ?     Has  the  last 

*  Herman  T.  Lukcns,  Educational  Review.,  March,  ]898,  page  247. 


The  Daily  Programme  133 

exercise  been  continued  too  long,  or  has  it  been  too 
monotonous  ?  Have  the  pupils  been  sitting  for  a  long 
time  without  relief  ?  Has  the  teacher  been  out  of  sorts 
and  irritable  ? — a  condition  which  is  reflected  in  the 
pupils.  Some  such  catechism  as  this  should  run 
through  the  mind  of  the  teacher,  and  he  should  at  once 
undertake  to  apply  some  one  of  the  many  remedies 
which  may  suggest  themselves.  It  may  be  a  brief  run 
out-of-doors,  or  a  short  intermission  in  the  room,  or  a 
song,  game,  or  story.  Sometimes  a  change  to  some 
more  interesting  work  is  sufficient  to  check  weariness  and 
restore  a  cheerful  atmosphere. 

It  is  also  apparent  that  in  the  performance  of  inter- 
esting work  there  is  more  or  less  fatigue  of  which  the 
pupils  may  or  may  not  be  conscious.  If  there  are  pupils 
in  the  room  who  for  any  reason  are  not  strong  the  teacher 
should  see  that  they  do  not  continue  their  work  too  long. 
In  fact,  it  may  be  necessary  at  times  to  take  away  work 
from  pupils  who  are  known  to  be  ambitious  beyond 
their  strength.  Such  care  on  the  part  of  the  teacher 
will  be  greatly  appreciated  by  the  parents. 

7. — Gymnastics  and  Games. 

"UTiat  kind  of  gymnastics  are  best  ?  This  question  is 
raised  in  order  to  suggest  a  caution.  There  are  two  or 
three  parties  on  the  subject  of  physical  education,  and, 
to  the  practical  educator,  it  often  appears  that  the  ex- 
ponents of  any  particular  school  are  too  opinionated 
and  dogmatic.  There  are  splendid  features  about  every 
system,  and  the  claims  made  for  them  are  based  upon 
sound  principles  of  psycholog}'  and  health.     The  writer, 


134  School  Management 

for  instance,  is  a  strong  believer  in  the  validity  of  Swe- 
dish gymnastics  as  a  basis  of  physical  training  in  the 
schools,  but  he  has  seen  this  system  applied  "with  such 
strenuousness  as  to  make  pupils  and  teachers  dislike  it 
and  lose  all  sense  of  interest  and  pleasure.  He  has  seen 
other  teachers  who  have  made  their  classes  enthusiastic. 
He  believes  that  an  eclectic  scheme  of  exercises,  com- 
bining the  best  features  of  the  Swedish,  the  German,  and 
the  Delsarte  methods,  is  more  suitable  for  American  chil- 
dren. Teachers  are  cautioned,  therefore,  against  accept- 
ing the  stern  mandate  that  gymnastics  should  never  be 
accompanied  by  music.  Rhythm  and  grace  of  move- 
ment are  most  desirable  elements,  and  even  dancing  is 
likely  to  become  more  and  more  a  school  exercise. 
Here,  then,  is  the  need  of  a  broad,  intelligent  view,  and 
an  unwillingness  to  surrender  that  view  to  any  parti- 
san who,  however  skilful  in  his  specialty,  may  do  vio- 
lence to  the  general  theory  of  what  the  modern  school 
should  be. 

It  should  not  be  necessary  to  urge  the  importance  of 
some  physical  exercises  each  day.  The  plea  so  often 
heard  that  there  is  no  time  is  not  valid,  for  the  follow- 
ing reasons : 

1.  It  is  very  often  possible  to  make  a  better  and  more 
economic  use  of  the  curriculum  by  a  skilful  selection, 
grouping,  and  correlating  of  subjects, 

2.  There  may  be  a  more  careful  preparation  of  the 
lessons  so  that  a  teacher  wastes  no  time  or  energy  either 
for  himself  or  for  the  pupils. 

3.  Considerable  economy  can  be  effected  by  arranging 
the  daily  programme  as  has  been  suggested.  The  exer- 
cises that  follow  each  other  should  be  in  sharp  contrast, 


The  Daily  Programme  135 

so  that  the  mind  of  the  learner  works  under  a  different 
tension,  or  in  a  different  way. 

4.  Physical  education  properly  applied  in  its  correc- 
tive, developing,  and  recreative  forms  results  in  a  saving 
of  time  and  energy. 

The  best  form  of  physical  culture  for  children  in  the 
primary  and  intermediate  classes  is  undoubtedly  such 
free  play  and  games  as  can  be  supervised  by  the  teacher 
either  in  the  school-room  or  out-of-doors.  The  latter  is 
always  preferred.  This  implies  that  every  teacher 
should  not  only  know  games,  but  should  love  to  play 
them  with  her  children.  The  writer  has  seen  a  school 
revived  and  transformed  when  the  teacher  began  to  lead 
and  direct  the  games  of  the  class  out-of-doors.  It  is 
safe  to  say  that  this  is  not  a  common  occurrence.  It  is 
earnestly  commended  as  a  subject  for  consideration  in 
teachers'  meetings  and  conventions.  It  suggests  a  new 
use  of  the  playground,  and  new  opportunities  for  co- 
operation and  social  combination.  Another  fine  oppor- 
tunity presents  itself  to  primary  teachers  in  the  dramatic 
aptitudes  of  children,  and  the  possibility  of  using  this 
propensity  in  connection  with  stories  of  chivalry,  such 
poems  as  "  Hiawatha,"  and  tales  of  Indians  and  pioneers. 
The  preparation  of  costumes  and  implements  in  connec- 
tion with  these  dramatic  representations  is  a  good  feat- 
ure of  historical  training  for  the  young. 

Mr.  George  E.  Johnson,  while  superintendent  of 
schools  in  Andover,  Mass.,  experimented  considerably 
to  ascertain  what  games  are  best  for  out-of-doors  and  in 
the  school-room.  He  has  suggested  the  following,  and 
no  doubt  the  list  could  be  considerably  increased.* 

*  American  Physical  Education  Review,  June,  1901,  page  163. 


136  School  Management 


8. — Out-of-door  Games. 

Games  of  Chase. — Tag.  Drop  the  handkerchief.  Cat 
and  mouse.  Hunt  and  tag.  Witch  in  jar.  Grocery 
store.  Tame  fox  and  chickens.  Tom  Tiddler's  ground. 
Blind-man's-butf.  Birds.  Maihnan.  Hopping  bases. 
Hill  Dill.     Last  couple   out.     Three  deep.     Cross  tag. 

Racing. — Potato-race.  Hoop-race.  Dashes.  Eelay- 
race.    Jumping-seat  race. 

Hurling  and  Throicing. — Tossing  ball.  Tossing  bean- 
bag.  Dead  ball.  Tossing  bean-bags  through  hole,  into 
a  box  or  circle,  or  through  a  hoop.  School-ball.  Dodge- 
ball.  Throwing  at  target.  Eing  toss.  Pass  ball.  Ten- 
pins.    Egg  hat.     Balloon-ball.     Grace  hoops. 

Contests. — Basket-ball.    Base-ball.  Foot-ball.  Cricket. 

Jumping. — Jump  rope.  High  jump.  Broad  jump. 
Kunniug  jump.     Pole  jump.     Vaulting. 

Hunting. — Hide  in  sight.  Hunt  eraser.  I  spy.  Hare 
and  hounds. 

Dual  Contests. — Push  from  ring.  Hold  stick  on  floor. 
Twisting  sticks.  Hand-wrestle.  Elbow-wrestle.  Wrest- 
ling— Eough-and-tumble,  Side-hold,  Collar-and-elbow, 
Back  hug.  Cock-fighting.  Eider  ball.  Boxing.  Tug- 
of-war.  Drawing  even.  London  Bridge.  Battle  square. 
Keep-ball.     Balloon-ball. 

Marching  and  Miscellaneous. — Eussian  file.  Going  to 
Jerusalem.  Spin  the  platter.  Hop-scotch.  Follow  the 
leader.     Thread  the  needle. 


The  Daily  Programme  187 

9. — School-room  Games. 

Contests. — Stick  on  floor.  Haud-wrestling  (either 
hand).     Twisting  sticks.     Wrestling  (only  on  mats). 

Running. — Potato-race,  individual  or  by  sides.  Eelay- 
race.     Tag  (through  mark).     Hunt  and  tag. 

Ball  Games. — Balloon-ball.     Keep-ball. 

Hurling  or  TJiroicing. — Bean-bags  into  circle,  or  the 
board  or  hoop.  Pitching  rings — pretty  exercise  using 
arms  instead  of  sticks  ;  rings  may  easily  be  made  by 
children  from  rattan. 

Jumping. — Over  pointer. 

Miscellaneous. — Jumping  seats.  Free  play.  Eings, 
balls,  floor-walls. 

A  small  book  entitled  "  One  Hundred  Games,"  pub- 
lished by  the  Boston  Normal  School  of  Gymnastics, 
contains  many  others. 

10. — Tlie  Automatic  Element. 

While  the  writer  deprecates  reducing  to  mechanism 
those  portions  of  the  school  life  in  which  judgment  and 
spontaneity  should  have  full  play,  it  is  evident  that  a 
great  many  details  connected  with  the  movements  of 
classes,  the  distribution  of  materials,  the  collection  and 
care  of  work,  should  be  made  nearly  automatic.  A  rea- 
sonable amount  of  system  in  such  details  in  reality 
ministers  to  freedom.  It  conduces  to  the  same  kind  of 
economy  as  those  personal  hubits  of  which  we  have  so 
many,  and  those  conventionalities  of  life  which  make 
things  go  so  smoothly  and  tend  to  promote  a  good 
understanding.     The  method  which  an  individual  fol- 


138  School  Management 

lows  day  after  day  in  dressing  and  undressing,  eating, 
writing,  or  Avalkiug,  makes  life  less  a  burden,  and  sets  the 
mind  of  the  individual  free  for  larger  and  higher  things. 
So  it  is  in  the  school.  If  such  matters  as  the  distribu- 
tion of  pens,  pencils,  copy-books,  papers,  and  readers 
become  self-regulating,  teacher  and  pupils  are  set  free 
for  more  important  things,  to  say  nothing  of  the  avoid- 
ance of  noise  and  confusion.  Pupils  enjoy  being  asked 
to  act  as  assistants  for  a  week  or  a  month,  in  what 
may  be  called  the  school  housekeeping,  and  in  the 
performance  of  these  duties  get  a  desirable  form  of 
training. 

11. — Planning  and  Adaptation. 

Enough  has  been  said  concerning  the  daily  programme 
to  show  that  it  is  largely  a  matter  of  planning  and  adapta- 
tion of  means  to  end.  Every  teacher  should  be  allowed 
to  make  such  slight  changes  in  her  daily  plans  as  will 
meet  the  conditions  caused  by  the  weather  and  other 
variables.  In  spring  and  autumn,  the  well-arranged  out- 
of-door  excursions  for  the  purposes  of  nature  study,  his- 
tory, or  geogi-aphy,  may  be  made  very  valuable.  Many 
teachers  shrink  from  this  duty  as  it  involves  a  different 
kind  of  control,  and  more  skilful  management. 

The  work  of  each  day  should  be  so  carefully  conceived 
as  to  go  on  smoothly,  and  no  slight  thing  should  be  per- 
mitted to  change  a  programme.  As  it  is  desirable  that 
children  come  happily  to  school,  it  is  no  less  important 
that  each  day's  work  be  finished  in  the  time  assigned  to  it, 
and  that  pupils  go  to  their  homes  without  too  much  wea- 
riness, full  of  pleasant  recollections  of  the  day,  and  with 
only  such  home  tasks  before  them  as  can  be  performed 


The  Daily  Programme  139 

in  a  reasonable  time.  The  recreation  of  the  child  out  of 
school  is  an  important  element  in  his  education,  and 
should  not  be  overlooked  by  the  teacher. 

The  detention  of  pupils  after  school,  either  for  pun- 
ishment or  lessons,  is  to  be  avoided.  Nothing  discounts 
the  teacher  and  the  school  so  much  as  that  continuous 
after-school  session,  which  shows  that  bad  habits  are 
being  formed,  and  that  the  boys  and  girls  of  that  class 
are  not  being  held  up  to  the  modern  standard  of  promp- 
titude, faithfulness,  and  despatch.  If  the  work  of  each 
day  is  forceful,  well-rounded,  and  complete,  there  is 
strength  and  courage  for  the  next,  and  so  the  days  move 
on  in  proud,  joyous  succession. 

TOPICAL  REVIEW 

1 .  Why  is  the  daily  programme  important  ? 

2.  The  significance  of  the  opening  exercise. 

3.  The  hours  of  daily  session. 

4.  The  grading  of  the  rural  school. 

5.  Relief  and  recreation  in  the  programme. 

6.  Fatigue  in  its  educative  bearings, 

7.  To  what  extent  are  gymnastics  and  games  intellectual  and 
ethical  in  their  influence? 

8.  What  activities  may  be  made  self-regulating  ? 

9.  In  what  spirit  and  in  what  condition  should  pupils  go  home 
at  night  ? 


CHAPTER  XI 
THE  RECITATION 

The  deepest  interests  of  the  school  are  focused  in  the 
recitation.  It  is  here  that  the  mind  is  strengthened,  that 
knowledge  is  broadened,  that  character  is  formed.  In 
the  light  of  the  new  education,  the  recitation  enlists  all 
the  powers  of  the  teacher  and  the  pupil.  It  is  the  su- 
preme moment  of  effort,  when  nothing  but  the  best  that 
teachers  and  pupils  are  capable  of  doing  ought  to  be 
permitted. 

All  that  we  have  found  to  be  true  relative  to  the 
breadth  of  culture  of  the  teacher,  his  judgment  and  his 
skill,  and  the  ph3'sical  condition  of  the  school-room, 
should  be  kept  in  mind  as  pertinent  to  this  particular 
topic.  As  the  orator  or  the  preacher  draws  upon  the 
stored-up  energies  of  a  lifetime,  and  brings  all  his 
powers  to  the  service  of  a  single  hour,  so  the  teacher 
must  come  to  the  recitation  period  with  reserve  strength 
and  enthusiasm.  Unless  the  preacher  is  unusually  elo- 
quent, a  short  sermon  is  often  more  fruitful  than  a  long 
one ;  so  it  sometimes  happens  that  the  recitation  may 
be  shortened  to  advantage  for  the  sake  of  avoiding  dul- 
ness,  especially  when  the  teacher  feels  that  he  has  ex- 
pended his  best  force.  The  shortened  recitation  gives 
more  time  for  study,  which  is  always  desirable. 

140 


The  Recitation  141 

1. — Tlie  Doctrine  of  Interest. 

While  character  is  the  end  of  all  teaching,  interest  is 
both  means  and  end.  While  we  are  greatly  indebted  to 
Herbart  and  his  disciples  for  their  exposition  of  the  doc- 
trine of  interest,  and  while  they  have  helped  to  give  the 
subject  the  proper  place  in  pedagogy,  it  is  not  really 
new.  All  educational  writers  from  the  time  of  Plato 
have  recognized  interest  as  the  condition  of  good  teach- 
ing, and  the  atmosphere  which  pervades  true  living ; 
for  the  principle  is  applicable  to  all  life  and  all  the  ac- 
tivities of  men.  We  do  better  and  more  cheerfully  what 
we  love  to  do.  The  interest  which  impels  us  to  action 
may  be,  first,  a  desire  for  the  thing  to  be  achieved ;  or, 
second,  the  pleasui'e  found  in  the  process.  The  boy 
desires  to  build  a  toy  barn  in  which  he  is  to  house  his 
wooden  horses  and  cattle.  The  little  girl  would  pro- 
vide for  her  doll  the  proper  articles  of  clothiug.  In 
both  cases  there  is  the  thought  and  the  ideal,  so  in- 
tensely captivating,  of  the  result  to  be  attained.  There 
is  also  pleasure  and  excitement  connected  with  every 
step  which  leads  to  that  result.  It  is  worth  while  to 
notice  in  passing  that  the  child's  pleasure  is  greatest 
when  the  nurse  or  the  parent  renders  the  least  assistance 
that  is  necessary  to  enable  the  child  to  do,  be  it  ever  so 
crudely,  the  work  required.  Here  we  see  the  principle 
of  self-activity  asserting  itself,  and  interest  its  chief 
partner  in  the  business. 

What  an  infinite  amount  of  light  this  sheds  upon  the 
work  of  the  primary  school !  The  formal  recitation  does 
not  appear  there.  It  is  a  place  of  ceaseless  activity, 
guided  and  aided  by  the  teacher  only  so  far  as  may  be 


142  School  Management 

necessary  to  help  the  children  achieve  by  their  own  ef- 
forts. To  secure  a  maximum  of  self- direction  is  the 
rule,  and  to  permit  rough,  crude  work  in  drawing  or 
construction,  for  the  sake  of  the  larger  interest  and  the 
added  strength  which  follow. 

The  general  theory,  therefore,  is  that  all  activities,  in- 
cluding the  recitation,  are  to  furnish  rich  and  abounding 
interest.  The  teacher,  by  his  deftness  and  skill,  is  to 
make  the  journey  along  which  the  student  travels  as 
attractive  as  possible. 

There  has  been  considerable  discussion  as  to  whether 
or  no  the  modern  school,  with  its  interesting  work  and 
happy  children,  makes  things  too  easy,  and  hence  fails 
to  develop  perseverance  and  pertinacity.  Professor 
Charles  McMurry  says :  *  "  Many  schoolmasters 
and  book-makers  have  been  so  enamored  of  the 
doctrine  of  hardship  and  distress  in  learning,  that  they 
have  deemed  it  one  of  their  highest  functions  to  invent 
artificial  difficulties,  there  not  being  sufficient  of  these 
in  the  natural  course  of  school  aflfairs.  One  of  the  Ger- 
man writers,  as  quoted  by  Paulsen,  says  that  one  of  the 
peculiar  merits  in  the  study  of  Latin,  as  taught  in  his 
time,  was  that  it  was  extremely  difficult,  so  much  so,  in- 
deed, that  the  boy  in  his  later  life  would  never  find  such 
difficulties  to  meet,  and,  if  he  had  mastered  his  Latin,  it 
was  certain  he  could  master  any  lesser  difficulties  that 
he  would  later  encounter. 

"  But  anyone  who  has  considered  the  vast  stretch  and 
variety  of  studies  opening  up  before  every  child,  and  of 
the  great  number  of  inherent  and  unavoidable  difficul- 
ties which  beset  his  course  in  every  study,  will  abandon 
*  "  Elements  of  General  Method,"  page  151. 


The  Recitation  143 

forever  the  idea  of  inventing  educational  hardships  and 
conundrums." 

It  seems  that  anyone  who  urges  this  view  cannot  have 
studied  his  own  life,  and  analyzed  the  motives  and  influ- 
ences that  have  inspired  him  to  action.  The  very 
hardest  tasks  of  peace  and  war  to  which  men  have  had 
to  address  themselves  have  been  charged  with  interest, 
and  have  been  carried  through  with  enthusiasm.  As 
new  generations  of  teachers  come  into  the  field,  we  are 
likely  to  hear  less  of  this  argument. 

It  seems  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  the  teacher  him- 
self is  often  the  source  of  interest.  Professor  DeGarmo 
declares*  that  "  Interest  often  follows  the  teacher.  A 
pleasing  personality,  a  happy  method  of  presentation, 
will  frequently  secure  an  interest  on  the  part  of  the 
student  which  is  active  as  long  as  it  lasts.  It  is  not  un- 
common to  find  teachers  who  make  any  subject  that 
they  teach  interesting.  Such  teachers  are  highly  prized, 
for  they  bring  student  and  study  into  the  happiest  con- 
tact, thus  presenting  each  body  of  ideas  in  such  a  way 
that  it  has  the  best  possible  chance  of  becoming  vivid. 
In  many  cases,  however,  the  interest  awakened  is  due, 
not  to  the  study  itself,  but  to  the  one  who  teaches  it. 
In  another  grade,  under  another  teacher,  it  becomes 
tedious,  so  that,  unless  it  is  contributory  to  some  other 
body  of  ideas  that  is  vivid,  the  study  is  likely  to  prove 
unprofitable." 

"We  see,  therefore,  that  the  general  bearing  of  interest 

must  be  kept  in  mind  at  every  point.     The  lesson  may 

be  carefully  prepared  and  may  be  taught  in  accordance 

with  the  rules,  but  if  the  teacher  lacks  a  pleasing  man- 

*  "Interest  and  Education,"  page  65. 


144  School  Management 

ner,  interest  may  fail.  Ou  the  other  hand,  a  teacher 
may  be  a  charming  person  with  an  enthusiastic  manner, 
and  yet  fail  because  of  insufficient  knowledge  or  un- 
skilled method. 


2. — Preparation  by  Teacher, 

The  first  thought  of  the  teacher  should  be  concerning 
the  objects  to  be  served  by  the  recitation,  and  the 
second,  the  best  means  of  securing  those  ends.  Among 
the  ends  to  be  sought  through  the  recitation  are : 

1.  To  broaden  and  strengthen  the  life  interests  of 
the  child. — There  can  bo  no  larger  purpose  than  this, 
and  in  seeking  the  lesser  ends  the  larger  should  never 
be  overlooked.  For  example,  it  is  highly  important 
that  a  history  lesson  should  give  mental  training  and 
add  something  to  the  student's  knowledge.  But  it  is 
still  more  to  be  desired  that  by  means  of  the  lesson  he 
adds  to  his  sympathetic  interest  in  human  progress, 
and  in  the  men  and  women  who  have  lived  and  fought 
for  principles. 

2.  Adequate  knowledge. — Every  lesson  should  con- 
tain a  few  clear  and  definite  truths.  These  are  to  be 
made  vivid,  and  by  illustration  and  repetition  are  to  be 
impressed  upon  the  minds  of  the  class. 

3.  To  cultivate  expression. — By  this  we  do  not  mean 
the  utterance  of  what  has  been  committed  to  memory; 
but  rather  such  expression  as  springs  from  the  thought 
of  the  pupUs  under  the  stimulus  of  questions  and  con- 
versation. 

4.  To  secure  co-operation. — The  competitive  system, 
which  is  fostered  by  marks  and  prizes,  and  which  gives 


The  Recitation  145 

all  the  applause  to  brilliant  performance,  is  ethically 
wrong.  Selfishness  is  the  reigning  evil  of  the  world. 
The  school  must  do  something  to  check  it.  The  recita- 
tion offers  such  an  opportunity.  Let  praise  be  given  to 
anyone  who  contributes  anything,  however  small,  to  the 
interest  of  the  hour.  Let  it  be  considered  discourteous 
to  raise  the  hand,  to  snap  the  fingers,  or  to  make  any 
other  demonstration  while  a  pupil  is  endeavoring  to 
speak.  Let  the  slow  pupils  have  their  opportunity. 
Let  the  abler  ones  assist,  and  thus  experience  the  pleas- 
ure of  helping  others.  Let  the  spirit  of  co-operation 
prevail. 

5.  To  arouse  and  discipline  the  mind. — This  purpose 
will  restrain  the  teacher  from  too  much  lecturing  and 
talking,  and  will  make  him  carefully  prepare  his  ques- 
tions which  are  to  occasion  a  sort  of  mental  gymnastic. 

6.  To  develop  executive  ability. — More  and  more  the 
school-room  is  becoming  a  laboratory.  Teaching  is  to 
be  real.  This  fact  is  best  illustrated  by  schools  like 
Hampton  and  Tuskegee,  but  it  applies  everywhere. 
The  recitation  is  to  summon  to  action  all  the  senses  as 
well  as  the  motor  powers.  Apparatus  is  to  be  used. 
Illustrations  are  to  be  dra^ii  upon  the  blackboard. 
Pictures  and  specimens  are  to  be  exhibited.  The  stere- 
opticon  is  to  be  called  into  service.  Maps  and  charts  are 
to  be  made.  Thus  the  teacher's  preparation  for  the  lesson 
will  take  into  account  the  various  services  which  the 
pupil  may  render  in  helping  to  make  the  recitation 
what  it  should  be. 


146  School  Management 


3. — Plans  of  Lessons. 

With  a  full  and  definite  conception  of  the  objects  to 
be  obtained,  the  teacher  will  next  consider  some  of  the 
means  to  be  used.  The  vnse  teacher  will  make  written 
notes  which  will  serve  the  same  purpose  as  the  lawyer's 
brief,  and  will  indicate  the  means  to  be  used  in  the  reci- 
tation.    Some  of  these  are  : 

1.  A  statement  of  the  order  of  topics.  These  should 
be  arranged,  not  only  in  a  sequence  which  is  natural, 
but  correlations  and  cross-references  should  be  sug- 
gested. 

2.  Proper  questions  should  be  thought  out.  The 
principle  of  apperception  should  govern  this  part  of  the 
work,  and  some  deference  should  be  given  to  the  order 
suggested  by  the  five  formal  steps,  to  which  reference 
will  be  made  in  another  chapter.  Great  care  should  be 
taken  in  the  selection  of  questions.  The  best  rule  for 
this  is,  that  every  question  should  call  for  the  expres- 
sion of  a  thought  along  the  trunk-line  of  the  lesson. 
The  relations  of  cause  and  effect  should  be  kept  in 
mind.  Skill  in  questioning  goes  far  to  make  the  recita- 
tion educative. 

3.  The  plan  should  include  a  list  of  the  apparatus 
and  illustrative  material  which  is  to  be  used.  The 
teacher  should  see  that  this  is  ready  and  at  hand. 
Nothing  so  endangers  the  success  of  the  recitation  as  to 
have  to  find  materials,  or  to  have  to  send  pupils  into 
another  part  of  the  building  for  them,  while  the  work  is 
in  progress. 


The  Recitation  147 

4. — 3Iethod. 

It  is  generally  agreed  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as 
the  method  in  teaching  a  lesson.  Every  good  teacher 
will  observe  sound  general  principles,  and  his  method 
will  be  the  putting  of  himself  into  the  work.  Every 
great  teacher,  whether  it  be  Pestalozzi  or  Thomas  Ar- 
nold, has  an  individuality  which  gives  a  unique  charac- 
ter to  his  teaching.  Some  of  the  best  teachers  of  to-day 
are  without  normal  training.  They  have  such  intuition 
and  tact  that  they  are  called  natural  teachers.  There 
are  a  few  simple  rules  of  method  which  are  sometimes 
forgotten  by  good  teachers : 

1.  The  voice  should  be  natural  and  conversational. 
The  cultivation  of  sharp,  shrill  tones  is  too  often  imi- 
tated by  the  pupils,  and  the  effect  is  disagreeable.  In 
speaking  in  subdued,  mellow  tones  the  teacher  econo- 
mizes his  own  strength,  and  commands  a  higher  degi'ee 
of  attention  from  his  pupils. 

2.  In  all  questioning  the  teacher  should  address  the 
entire  class,  unless  some  individual  is  upon  the  floor. 
When  the  question  is  asked  before  the  pupil  is  called, 
the  minds  of  all  aro  alert  and  expectant  ;  in  other  words, 
the  whole  class  is  working.  This  applies  in  all  class  ex- 
ercises. To  permit  pupils  to  read  or  spell  around  in 
turn  encourages  idleness.  After  the  pupil  has  performed 
his  part  he  settles  into  such  a  state  of  mental  inertia 
that  be  often  loses  his  place  and  so  is  unable  to  recite 
promptly.  The  test  of  good  teaching  is  seen  in  the 
extent  to  which  the  teacher  holds  the  entire  class  to  the 
work  in  hand.  If,  when  a  question  is  asked,  every  hand 
comes  up,  there  is  evidence  of  supreme  excellence.    All 


148  School  Management 

oral  and  test  work  in  number,  and  review  work  in  his- 
tory and  geography,  should  be  done  with  such  care  and 
with  such  deference  to  the  actual  abilities  of  the  class 
that  every  question  may  receive  a  ready  response  from 
a  large  majority.  When,  as  is  sometimes  the  case  in  re- 
view work,  only  two  or  three  respond,  there  is  proof  of 
inferior  work.  Good  teaching  implies  a  kind  of  leader- 
ship that  brings  pupils  up  to  the  mark,  and  makes  them 
ready  to  think  and  to  do. 

3.  The  teacher  must  avoid  sarcasm  or  insinuations  of 
any  sort.  I  have  known  those  who  have  been  sarcastic 
for  so  many  years  that  it  is  difficult  for  them  to  refrain 
from  using  that  weapon  upon  the  slightest  provocation. 
Nothing  is  so  killing  to  that  confidence  and  frankness 
which  pupils  should  feel.  To  be  held  up  to  public  ridi- 
cule when  one  makes  a  mistake  or  forgets  his  lesson 
leaves  a  sting  behind  that  sometimes  makes  him  hate 
both  the  subject  and  the  teacher.  There  can  be  no 
ideal  school  where  the  teacher  fails  in  being  courteous 
and  kind  even  to  those  who  do  poorly.  There  may  be 
a  call  for  plain-speaking,  but  let  it  be  the  truth  and 
nothing  more.  Wit  and  humor  are  excellent  helps  in 
teaching,  and  a  good  hearty  laugh  is  desirable,  but  no 
teacher  should  make  fun  at  the  expense  of  an  individual 
pupil. 

4.  A  good  teacher  will  avoid  telling  anything  that 
can  be  drawn  from  the  pupils.  This  rule  will  restrain  a 
tendency  which  some  have  to  lecture  or  to  explain  too 
much. 

5.  A  lesson  must  not  become  discursive.  Pupils 
with  little  knowledge  of  the  lesson  are  quite  ready  to 
side-track  the  teacher,  and  the  teacher  sometimes  leads 


The  Recitation  149 

the  class  far  astray  from  the  main  path.  The  writer 
remembers  hearing  a  teacher  beginning  the  lesson  with 
an  intermediate  class  upon  the  discovery  of  America. 
First  came  the  fact  that  the  father  of  Columbus  was  a 
wool  merchant,  then  that  wool  came  from  a  sheep  and 
is  made  into  cloth  and  various  other  useful  articles, 
while  the  sheep  furnishes  mutton,  which  serves  for  food, 
so  that  both  food  and  clothing  come  from  the  sheep, 
etc.  It  happened  that  the  class  knew  more  about  sheep 
than  about  Columbus,  so  there  was  a  stampede  in  that 
direction.  The  desire  to  correlate  weakens  rather  than 
strengthens  teaching  when  it  leads  the  mind  in  every 
direction  except  toward  the  main  point  of  the  lesson. 

5. — Teaching  Devices. 

If  there  has  been  a  tendency  in  recent  times  to  mini- 
mize the  importance  of  method,  this  has  not  been  true 
of  devices.  The  teacher  possessing  originality  and 
enterprise  will  have  some  new  device  nearly  every  day 
which  helps  to  increase  interest.  There  are  prob- 
ably ten  ways  in  which  a  spelling  lesson  may  be 
taught,  by  using  which  this  exercise  is  relieved  of  its 
monotony. 

There  are  many  ways  of  using  the  blackboard  in 
which  the  aid  of  pupils  can  be  enlisted ;  for  example, 
when  a  particularly  good  answer  is  given,  a  pupil  may 
be  permitted  to  write  both  question  and  answer  on  the 
board.  Not  only  should  pupils  be  permitted  to  ques- 
tion the  teacher  before  the  recitation  is  over,  but  he 
should  also  be  allowed  to  question  the  class.  This 
device  works  well  in  reviewing  geography  and  history. 


150  School  Management 

The  pupils  sliould  always  be  allowed  to  prepare  a  list 
of  questions  which  to  their  minds  will  bring  out  the 
best  that  a  topic  contains.  The  best  primary  teachers 
are  fertile  in  devices  for  teaching  numbers,  reading,  and 
"writing.  Even  in  the  secondary  school  the  teacher  in 
Latin,  Greek,  and  mathematics  will  vary  his  plan  of 
procedui-e  from  day  to  day,  so  that  the  work  is  never 
wearisome. 

6. — Illustrative  Material. 

We  have  already  referred  to  the  importance  of  having 
everything  in  readiness.  Teaching  is  not  vital  unless 
accompanied  by  concrete  illustrations.  Thus,  in  history, 
the  photograph  of  a  great  warrior  or  statesman,  or  the 
scene  of  some  great  event  or  battle  is  helpful.  Nearly 
every  historic  event  has  been  idealized  in  literature,  and 
a  particular  passage  of  prose  or  poetry  which  is  needed 
should  be  at  hand.  This  is  a  natural  and  proper  form 
of  correlation. 

The  stereopticon  furnishes  the  very  best  means  of  mak- 
ing geography,  history,  and  literature  vivid.  Every  gram- 
mar and  high  school  should  have  one.  In  many  to\\Tis 
and  cities  a  supply  of  lantern  slides  is  kept  at  a  central 
point,  and  these  are  fiu-nished  to  the  several  schools 
upon  request.  If,  for  example,  a  series  of  lessons  has 
been  given  upon  the  geography  of  southern  Europe  or 
upon  the  history  of  Greece  or  Eome,  there  is  the  finest 
opportunity  possible  of  making  these  lessons  of  lasting 
interest  by  throwing  upon  the  screen  pictures  of  those 
immortal  scenes  and  works  of  art  which  have  inspired 
the  world.  Anyone  who  has  observed  the  intense  in- 
terest and  pleasure  in  which  children  view  these  plot- 


The  Recitation  151 

ures  will  have   no  doubt   of  their  value  as  an  aid  to 
teaching. 

Nothing  need  be  said  here  of  the  importance  of  real 
things  in  all  nature  and  science  teaching,  including 
physiology  and  anatomy,  neither  is  it  necessary  to  em- 
phasize again  the  value  of  out-of-door  work  in  physical 
geography.  Experts  and  makers  of  text-books  say  little 
about  this.  But  every  live  teacher  knows  that  the 
more  learning  becomes  an  experience,  and  the  more  all 
the  powers  of  a  child  are  employed  in  that  experience, 
the  better. 

7. — The  Assignment  of  Lessons. 

Sufficient  time  should  be  taken  at  the  end  of  each 
recitation  to  assign  definitely  and  clearly  the  next  lesson. 
For  often  the  recitation  is  continued  until  the  last  mo- 
ment, and  the  directions  for  the  next  day's  work  are 
given  too  hurriedly.  When  pupils  come  to  study  the 
lesson  they  are  in  doubt  as  to  just  what  is  required. 
They  sometimes  sit  down  at  home  and  spend  the  evening 
in  anxiety  and  tears,  and  discover  the  next  day  that 
they  had  attempted  to  do  what  the  teacher  did  not  ex- 
pect from  them.  The  writer  once  worked  in  a  secondary 
school  where  the  master  insisted  that  one-fourth  of  the 
recitation  hour  should  be  used  in  giving  out  the  next 
lesson.  He  himself  taught  Greek,  and  went  over  the 
lesson,  pointing  out  the  things  of  special  importance, 
giving  hints  as  to  peculiar  constructions  and  historical 
references.  When  his  students  came  to  their  study 
period  they  knew  exactly  what  was  expected.  Much 
discomfort,  both  in  the  school  and  the  home,  could  be 
obviated  if  all  teachers  accepted  this  caution. 


152  School  Management 

There  are  certain  times  in  tLe  year,  at  the  beginning 
of  the  autumn  term,  and  toward  the  end  of  the  spring, 
when  pupils  are  unable  to  do  their  best  work.  Then 
the  lessons  should  be  shorter  and  the  teacher  should 
be  more  considerate.  It  is  also  a  mistake  to  assign 
long  lessons  for  a  day  immediately  following  a  holiday. 
Pupils  will  always  appreciate  a  little  leniency  at  such 
times,  and  will  more  than  make  up  the  loss  by  their 
fidelity  at  other  times. 

8. — Preparation  by  Pupils. 

In  another  chapter  something  more  wall  be  said  con- 
cerning study  periods  at  home  and  in  school.  It  is 
enough  now  to  emphasize  again  the  point  that  each 
day's  work  should  be  complete  and  that  pupils  should 
do  faithfully  the  work  at  the  time  intended,  thus  avoid- 
ing those  arrearages  which  are  such  a  drag  upon  the  life 
of  the  school,  as  well  as  upon  the  individual.  A  habit 
of  promptitude  must  be  formed  in  the  performance  of 
tasks,  and  the  teacher  must  esteem  this  as  of  equal  im- 
portance to  any  benefit  that  may  come  from  the  lesson 
itself.  The  value,  and  the  necessity,  of  punctuality  and 
promptitude  in  our  modern  life  are  self-evident.  Life  is 
intense  and  rapid,  and  the  person  w^ho  wins  must  be 
able  to  summon  his  energies  and  respond  at  the  mo- 
ment ;  so  the  school  has  a  new  function  growing  out  of 
modern  conditions,  making  it  imperative  to  train  chil- 
dren to  think  and  to  act  quickly  and  promptly,  and  not 
to  put  off  for  a  single  moment  what  can  be  done  now. 


The  Recitation  158 


TOPICAL   REVIEW 

1.  The  function  of  the  recitation. 

2.  How  self-activity  develops  interest. 

3.  The  art  of  teaching  as  a  source  of  interest. 

4.  What  social  factors  are  in  the  recitation? 

5.  How  may  the  recitation  serve  the  ends  of  mental  training  ? 

6.  Other  uses  of  the  recitation. 

7.  How  may  a  good  lesson  plan  be  made  ? 

8.  The  limitations  of  method. 

9.  Questioning  as  related  to  attention, 
xo.  The  killing  effect  of  sarcasm. 

11.  The  recitation  should  have  unity. 

12.  The  value  of  devices  and  illustrative  material. 

13.  The  assignment  of  lessons. 


CHAPTER  XII 
THE  RECITATION    {Continued) 

Having  considered  the  preparation  for  the  recitation 
by  teacher  and  pupils  and  the  general  spirit  of  co- 
operation that  characterizes  good  class  work,  we  pass 
now  to  a  discussion  of  the  more  formal  aspect  of  teach- 
ing, namely,  the  successive  steps  by  which  we  may  best 
reach  the  goal  of  the  recitation. 

1. — The  Goal  of  Instruction. 

In  order  to  bring  cleai'ly  to  mind  the  nature  of  the 
immediate  aim  of  the  recitation,  let  us  recall  a  few 
concrete  illustrations.  A  familiar  topic  in  the  study 
of  the  American  Revolution  is  the  cause  that  led  to  the 
open  resistance  of  the  colonies.  In  treating  this  topic 
the  skiKul  teacher  will  utilize  many  familiar  incidents 
of  the  pre-Revolutionary  period  in  such  a  way  as  to  call 
up  a  vivid  picture  of  some  of  the  dramatic  events.  It 
is  not,  however,  in  the  details  of  this  picture  that  the 
chief  value  of  the  recitation  lies.  The  aim  is  to  go 
back  of  the  details  and  to  teach  some  general  truth,  such 
as  the  tendency  of  Americans  and  other  Anglo-Saxon 
peoples  to  resist  by  extreme  measures  every  eflfort  to 
levy  taxes  upon  them  by  a  government  in  which  they 
have  no  voice.     This  is  an  idea  that  the  pupils  will  be 

154 


The  Recitation  155 

called  upon  constantly  to  apply,  not  only  in  the  future 
study  of  the  Revolutionary  War,  but  in  the  study  of 
the  literature  and  history  of  other  periods  and  other 
peoples.  It  is  just  the  possibility  of  application  to  a 
large  number  of  particular  cases  that  constitutes  the 
great  value  and  significance  of  such  an  idea  as  the  cen- 
tral thought  for  a  recitation. 

Similarly,  a  recitation  dealing  with  the  climate  and 
location  of  New  York  City,  with  the  neighboring  rivers 
and  other  routes  of  trade,  and  with  the  resources  and 
products  of  tributary  cities  and  countries,  will  have  as 
its  central  aim  to  teach  how  New  York,  as  a  type  of  a 
great  trade  centre,  has  attained  its  commercial  emi- 
nence. Here,  again,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  real  aim  of 
the  recitation  lies  beyond  the  series  of  details  presented, 
and  is  found  in  a  general  truth  that  gives  the  key  to  the 
understanding  of  a  large  number  of  facts  concerning 
commercial  centres. 

Again,  behind  particular  problems  involving  the  buy- 
ing and  selling  of  grain  or  lumber  will  be  seen  some 
general  truth  in  the  form  of  a  rule  of  arithmetical  opera- 
tion or  a  principle  of  commercial  transaction.  The 
mastery  of  this  rule  or  principle  and  its  application  in 
further  investigation  are  the  true  reasons  for  directing 
the  attention  of  pupils  to  such  problems. 

Examples  might  be  multiplied,  but  we  may  assume 
without  further  discussion  that  the  immediate  aim  of 
every  recitation  is  to  teach  a  general  truth  and  its  ap- 
plication to  concrete  problems.  Such  a  statement  of 
the  immediate  aim  of  instruction  is,  of  course,  indepentl- 
ent  of  the  view  one  may  take  of  the  ultimate  or  deeper 
aim  of  education.     For,  obviously,  whatever  this  final 


156  School  Management 

purpose  may  be,  there  will  be  some  body  of  general 
truths  that  will  be  considered  essential,  and  these  truths 
will  have  value  just  to  the  extent  to  which  they  may  be 
applied  to  actual  human  needs. 


%—The  Prohlem  of  Method. 

The  problem  of  method,  then,  may  be  briefly  stated 
thus :  How  in  a  recitation  may  we  proceed  most  effec- 
tively to  lead  pupils  to  grasp  and  apply  a  general 
truth? 

An  obvious  and,  at  first  sight,  a  satisfactory  solution 
of  this  problem  is  to  present  the  general  truth  directly 
to  the  pupils  in  the  form  of  a  rule,  definition,  or  maxim, 
and  when  this  has  been  mastered,  to  give  opportunity 
for  its  application  to  concrete  instances.  This  is,  in  fact, 
the  method  very  frequently  followed,  and  it  was  formerly 
much  more  common  in  school  work  than  now.  A  rule 
for  the  calculation  of  square  root,  for  example,  is  given 
to  be  memorized,  and  this  is  followed  by  a  number  of 
problems  to  which  the  rule  is  to  be  applied.  Or  defini- 
tions of  flood-plain  and  isthmus  are  to  be  mastered  out- 
right, and  the  application  is  often  found,  if  at  all,  in 
naming  and  locating  examples  of  these  land  forms 
through  the  study  of  text-books  and  maps. 

Experience  has  shown,  however,  that,  simple  and  direct 
as  this  method  of  approaching  general  truths  seems,  it 
does  not  accomplish  satisfactorily  the  purpose  for  which 
it  is  intended.  It  seems  to  be  a  fundamental  law  of  the 
human  mind  that  general  truths  are  not  only  discovered, 
but  understood  and  appreciated  as  well,  through  the 
study  of  a  number  of  particular  instances  to  which  the 


The  Recitation  157 

general  truth  applies.  Individual  trees  must  be  seen 
before  the  general  idea  "  tree  "  is  apprehended.  Vari- 
ous generous  acts  must  be  seen  and  admired  before  the 
general  idea  of  generosity  as  an  admirable  quality  is 
grasped. 

To  present  the  general  truth  before  the  particular 
instances  is,  therefore,  to  reverse  the  natural  order  of  the 
mind's  activity,  and  is  in  that  sense  unscientific.  Before 
concrete  examples  and  illustrations  have  been  presented 
pupils  are  likely  wholly  to  misunderstand  or  to  under- 
stand only  vaguely  the  statement  of  a  general  truth. 
Furthermore,  it  is  natural  that  pupils  should  approach 
without  any  warmth  of  interest  a  general  truth  that 
they  are  not  prepared  to  understand.  The  important 
advantage  of  the  pupil's  best  interest  is  accordingly  lost 
when  such  an  attempt  at  a  short  cut  is  made.  So  that, 
while  it  might  seem  possible  to  economize  time  and 
energy  by  proceeding  directly  to  a  general  truth,  such 
procedure  in  reality  defeats  its  own  purpose. 

It  is  clear,  then,  that  we  can  avoid  a  serious  danger  of 
method  and  provide  for  a  clear  understanding  of  a  gen- 
eral truth  and  for  interest  in  it,  by  presenting  in  ad- 
vance a  number  of  appropriate  particular  instances  in 
which  the  general  truth  is  illustrated.  But  here  again 
a  difficulty  presents  itself.  To  revert  to  an  illustration 
already  used,  the  details  of  the  American  resistance  to 
the  Stamp  Act  and  to  the  tea  tax  are  probably  as  unfa- 
miliar to  the  pupils  as  the  general  truth  that  Anglo- 
Saxon  peoples  strongly  object  to  being  taxed  by  a  gov- 
ernment in  which  they  are  not  represented.  How,  then, 
are  we  to  approach  an  unfamiliar  general  truth  by  means 
of  particular  instances  that  are  themselves  unfamiliar? 


158  School  Management 

The  answer  to  this  question  is  twofold.  In  the  first 
place,  particulars  are  usually  easier  to  understand  than 
generalizations.  It  is  relatively  a  simple  matter  for 
pupils  to  form  an  accurate  idea  of  the  Stamp  Act,  the 
tea  tax,  and  the  closing  of  American  ports;  to  picture 
the  ways  in  which  the  colonists  first  showed  their  dis- 
apijroval  of  these  acts,  and  to  understand  why  the  con- 
tinuation of  these  objectionable  acts  finally  aroused  the 
Americans  to  armed  resistance.  It  is  relatively  difficult 
for  children,  before  they  are  acquainted  with  some  such 
facts,  to  grasp  the  idea  that  taxation  without  represen- 
tation is  tyranny. 

But  in  the  second  place,  we  must  answer  that  there 
is  a  real  and  serious  difficulty  in  the  presentation  of 
unfamiliar  facts,  however  concrete  they  may  be.  A 
complete  method  of  instruction  must,  therefore,  point 
out  the  solution  of  this  difficulty.  We  may  get  a  clue 
to  this  solution  by  reflecting  for  a  moment  upon  the 
way  in  which  we  constantly  deal  with  unfamiliar  objects 
and  ideas. 

3. — Apperception. 

It  is  a  matter  of  common  experience  that  different 
persons  observing  the  same  object  may  get  very  differ- 
ent impressions.  A  trained  botanist,  meeting  for  the 
first  time  a  rare  species  of  PMehodium,  at  once  notices 
the  large  fronds,  broadly  ovate  in  outline,  wdth  nine 
lanceolate  spreading  divisions.  A  housekeeper,  in 
search  of  material  for  the  adornment  of  her  drawing- 
room,  sees  in  the  same  fern  something  that  meets  mod- 
erately well  the  requirements  of  her  scheme  of  decora- 
tion, though  she  observes  that  the  leaves  are  somewhat 


The  Recitation  159 

too  stiff  and  yellow  for  her  purpose.  The  city  boy, 
whose  range  of  experience  with  respect  to  plant  life  is 
limited  to  a  few  struggling  potted  flowers  and  the  shrubs 
and  trees  of  a  small  park,  interprets  the  fern  as  a  kind 
of  bush  somewhat  smaller  and  a  good  deal  more  strag- 
gly than  those  he  has  seen  before ;  while  a  little  child 
is  amazed  and  delighted  with  what  appears  to  him  to 
be  a  wonderful  bunch  of  green  feathers. 

In  each  one  of  these  cases  the  person  has  interpreted 
the  new  object  in  accordance  with  his  interests  and  his 
previous  experiences.  The  object  is  the  same  in  every 
case,  but  the  meaning  of  the  object  varies  greatly  ac- 
cording to  the  knowledge  of  other  objects  with  which 
the  new  one  may  be  compared  and  related.  Something 
like  this  occurs  whenever  a  person  encounters  an  unfa- 
miliar object  or  idea.  There  is  a  tendency  to  classify 
the  new  thing,  to  associate  it  with  similar  things  already 
known,  to  bring  it  out  of  its  isolation  into  its  proper 
relations  with  other  things. 

It  is  a  general  law  of  mental  activity  that  experience 
is  widened  and  enriched  by  this  process  of  assimilating 
newly  presented  material  and  incorporating  it  into  the 
body  of  knowledge  already  organized.  This  is  a  simple 
statement  of  the  law  of  apperception,  concerning  which 
so  much  has  been  said  and  written  during  recent  years 
under  the  impulse  due  to  Herbart  and  his  followers. 
Professor  James  has  pointed  out  that  there  is  really 
nothing  more  in  the  law  of  apperception  than  in  the 
long  familiar  law  of  association  as  expounded  by  psy- 
chologists and  that  much  confusion  of  thought  has 
resulted  from  the  eflforts  of  certain  educational  writers 
to  surround  the  idea  of  apperception  with  a  sort  of 


160  School  Management 

mystic  potency  that  can  solve  all  of  the  teacher's  diffi- 
culties. 

It  is  true,  however,  that,  simple  and  commonplace  as 
the  idea  of  apperception  is,  there  has  been  and  still  is  a 
marked  tendency  for  teachers  to  ignore  its  bearing  on 
the  problems  of  method.  Arithmetic  is  often  taught  as 
if  its  processes  had  no  vital  connection  with  the  every- 
day concerns  of  the  pupils ;  geography  as  if  it  had  only 
a  remote  bearing,  if  any,  upon  the  immediate  and  famil- 
iar surroundings ;  history  as  if  it  began  and  ended  in 
times  and  places  out  of  all  relation  to  present  interests 
and  problems. 

4. — Summary  of  Principles. 

To  sum  up  the  discussion  thus  far,  we  have  seen, 
first,  that  the  aim  of  the  recitation  is  to  develop  a  general 
truth  and  to  provide  for  its  practical  application ;  sec- 
ond, that  the  most  effective  approach  to  a  general  truth 
is  through  properly  chosen  particular  cases  that  illus- 
trate it ;  and  third,  that  these  particular  cases,  so  far  as 
they  are  unfamiliar,  can  be  understood  and  interpreted 
only  by  means  of  related  knowledge  already  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  pupils. 

Every  coniplete  recitation  will,  then,  conform  to  the 
requirements  just  stated.  This,  of  course,  does  not  ap- 
ply to  every  class  exercise  that  occupies  a  "  period  "  of 
the  day's  work,  for  such  an  exercise  often  constitutes 
only  a  part  of  the  complete  recitation.  The  general 
truth  may,  in  some  cases,  be  reached  only  after  a  series 
of  exercises  extending  over  several  days  or  even  weeks, 
but  for  our  present  purpose  all  of  these  exercises  are 


The  Recitation  161 

considered  as  parts  of  a  single  recitation.  The  five 
formal  steps  of  instruction  as  expounded  by  Herbart 
and  his  followers  are  simply  an  application  and  ampli- 
fication of  the  three  principles  above  stated.  "We  may 
now  make  a  very  brief  statement  concerning  each  of  the 
five  steps. 

5. — Herbart's  Five  Formal  Steps. 

1.  Pkeparation. — "We  have  seen  that  new  ideas  are 
interpreted  or  apperceived  by  means  of  related  ideas 
already  familiar.  The  pupils  of  a  class  approach  the 
new  ideas  entering  into  the  subject-matter  of  a  recita- 
tion with  a  great  variety  of  experience  gained  in  school 
and  out,  some  of  it  clear,  and  well  classified,  some  ill- 
defined  and  scattered.  The  teacher  must,  of  course, 
meet  his  pupils  on  their  own  ground.  To  attempt  any- 
thing else  means  certain  failure. 

The  first  step  toward  the  goal  of  the  recitation,  there- 
fore, is  to  prepare  the  minds  of  the  pupils  to  receive 
and  understand  the  new  thought.  By  means  of  discus- 
sion, question,  suggestion,  and  direct  statement  of  facts, 
the  appropriate  familiar  ideas  must  be  recalled  vividly 
to  the  minds  of  the  pupils. 

There  is  danger  in  this  step  of  the  recitation  of  fail- 
ing to  centre  all  of  the  ideas  upon  a  definite  point  and 
of  leading  thus  to  confusion  rather  than  to  clearness. 
This  danger  may  be  avoided  by  stating  at  the  outset 
in  simple,  definite  language  the  aim  of  the  recitation. 
Anything  that  does  not  bear  upon  this  aim  can  then  be 
ruled  out  and  the  preparatory  matter  can  be  shai'ply 
focussed  upon  the  central  thought. 

This  step  may  frequently  be  made  very  brief  ,  often, 


162  School  Management 

however,  the  greater  part  of  the  time  devoted  to  the  en- 
tire recitation  may  be  required.  Sometimes  a  brief  re- 
view of  the  results  of  a  previous  recitation  may  be  the 
best  preparation  for  advanced  work ;  at  other  times  it  may 
be  necessary  to  cover  a  wide  and  varied  field  of  experi- 
ence in  order  to  bring  the  pupils  to  a  point  from  which 
they  can  attack  the  new  ideas  to  advantage. 

Reference  to  the  beginning  of  the  present  chapter  will 
furnish  an  illustration  of  the  first  step  in  construction. 
In  the  first  paragraph  there  is  a  statement  of  the  aim  as 
the  treatment  of  "  the  successive  steps  by  which  we  may 
best  reach  the  goal  of  the  recitation."  The  next  four 
paragraphs  are  a  preparation  in  the  form  of  a  statement 
of  facts  concerning  recitations  on  familiar  topics  in  his- 
tory, geography,  and  arithmetic. 

2.  Presentation. — When  the  preparation  has  been 
completed,  the  way  is  open  for  the  second  step  of  in- 
struction, and  the  great  advantage  of  the  preparatory 
step  should  now  show  itself  in  the  ease  and  rapidity  with 
which  the  pupils  can  receive  and  assimilate  the  new 
facts. 

Here,  as  in  the  first  step,  the  initial  aim  furnishes  a 
standard  for  the  admission  or  rejection  of  subject-mat- 
ter. The  purpose  of  the  new  matter  presented  is  to 
lead  up  quickly  and  by  as  close  sequence  as  possible  to 
the  general  idea  that  is  in  view.  Nothing  that  does  not 
contribute  distinctly  to  this  aim  will  properly  be  ad- 
mitted. 

The  form  in  which  the  presentation  of  new  matter  may 
best  be  made  will  vary  with  circumstances.  In  general, 
however,  there  are  two  ways  in  which  the  presentation 
may  be  made,  namely,  the  method  of  direct  presentation 


The  Recitation  163 

and  the  so-called  developing  method.  According  to  the 
first  method,  the  new  facts  are  given  outright  to  the  pu- 
pils either  by  means  of  text-books  or  through  lectures. 
This  is  the  method  of  presentation  that  is  at  present 
most  widely  used,  but  while  perhaps  the  easier  and  ap- 
parently more  effective  method,  it  is  open  to  serious  ob- 
jections. The  appeal  of  this  method  is  likely  to  be  far 
more  to  the  verbal  memory  than  to  the  real  understand- 
ing of  pupils.  Interest  and  spontaneity  may  easily  be 
stifled  by  too  constant  or  too  close  adherence  to  this 
method  of  direct  presentation. 

The  developing  method  aims  to  get  the  new  facts  be- 
fore the  pupils  mainly  through  conversation  and  discus- 
sion on  the  part  of  teacher  and  pupils.  Instead  of 
learning  outright  the  answers  to  the  main  problems  in- 
volved in  a  lesson,  the  pupils  are  active  in  anticipating 
so  far  as  possible  the  problems  and  in  solving  them  on 
their  own  initiative.  While  the  developing  method  has 
the  obvious  advantage  of  securing  the  active  participa- 
tion of  the  pupils  in  the  development  of  the  thought  and 
consequently  a  fresher  and  fuller  interest,  it  also  has 
its  limitations.  There  are  many  facts  that  it  would 
be  folly  to  expect  pupils  to  anticipate.  Attempts  to  de- 
velop such  facts  usually  result  in  mere  guessing,  which 
is,  of  course,  worse  than  valueless. 

The  conclusion  would  seem  to  be  that  the  developing 
method  may  well  be  used  to  a  much  greater  extent  than 
it  usually  is,  but  that  it  must  often  be  supplemented  by 
the  direct  presentation  of  facts  through  text-books  and 
by  the  teacher's  words.  If  the  study  of  text-books  is 
preceded  by  class  discussion  of  the  topic  under  consid- 
eration, many  of  the  dangers  of  either  method  by  itself 


164  School  Management 

may  be  avoided,  the  text-book  aiBfording  a  sort  of  sum- 
mary of  what  has  been  partly  anticipated  in  the  discus- 
sion. 

3.  CoMPAEisoN. — After  the  preparation  and  the  pres- 
entation of  new  subject-matter,  we  are  ready  to  make 
use  of  the  facts  presented  in  approaching  the  general 
truth  that  we  have  had  in  view.  To  recall  a  former  ex- 
ample, having  brought  vividly  before  the  pupils  the  con- 
crete events  leading  up  to  the  Revolutionary  War,  we 
direct  attention  to  the  elements  of  difference  and  simi- 
larity among  the  various  events.  The  Stamp  Act,  the 
tea  tax,  and  the  trade  laws  difiered  in  some  resj^ects, 
but  they  were  alike  in  that  they  were  designed  to  raise 
revenue  for  England  and  were  imposed  by  a  Parliament 
in  which  the  colonies  had  no  voice.  In  other  words, 
we  compare  the  facts  presented  in  order  to  discover 
what  is  the  essential  truth  in  all  of  them.  The  weak- 
ness of  much  teaching  otherwise  effective  may  be  found 
in  a  failure  to  go  behind  the  details,  for  unless  the  con- 
crete facts  are  compared  and  focussed,  it  is  probable 
that  no  clear  and  lasting  view  of  the  general  trutli  under- 
lying them  Avill  be  gained.  Comparison,  then,  is  the 
bridge  that  spans  the  gap  between  the  ]-)articulars  pre- 
sented in  the  second  step  and  the  general  truth  toward 
which  the  aim  is  directed. 

4.  Generalization. — Following  the  comparison  of  the 
facts  presented  and  the  discovery  of  the  elements  com- 
mon and  essential  to  all  of  them,  comes  the  task  of 
stating  in  concise  and  accurate  form  the  general  truth 
that  has  been  reached.  This  is  by  no  means  always  a 
simple  or  superfluous  matter,  as  one  may  readily  realize 
by  considering  how  difficult  it  often  is  to  state  briefly 


The  Recitation  1G5 

and  comprehensively  the  central  thought  of  a  story, 
lecture,  or  essay.  It  is  usually  well  to  have  the  gen- 
eral truth  stated  in  the  first  instance,  in  the  words 
of  the  pupils,  however  crude  such  statements  may  be. 
It  is  only  in  this  way  that  we  can  be  sure  that  the  pupils 
have  hold  of  the  truth  itself,  and  not  merely  of  the 
sounding  words.  It  may  be  desirable  afterward  to  in- 
troduce a  statement  in  the  form  of  a  definition  or  rule, 
or  a  maxim,  such  as  "  Taxation  without  representation 
is  tyranny." 

5.  Application. — When  a  clear  view  of  an  important 
general  truth  has  been  gained,  there  still  remains  the 
final  and  perhaps  most  important  step  of  instruction. 
A  general  truth  so  long  as  it  remains  isolated  is  insig- 
nificant. It  is  only  when  it  is  applied  in  conduct  or  in 
interpreting  the  concrete  interests  of  human  life  that  it 
possesses  real  value.  The  general  truth  that  lay  at  the 
bottom  of  the  events  immediately  preceding  the  Ameri- 
can Revolution  is  made  vital  only  when  it  is  applied  in 
such  a  way  as  to  give  clearer  insight  into  the  meaning 
of  our  own  institutions  or  into  the  spirit  of  democracy 
in  general. 

It  is  not  always  easy  to  find  immediate  application 
for  the  general  truths  to  which  instruction  leads.  In- 
deed, it  is  clear  that  an  adequate  idea  of  the  practical 
bearing  of  general  truths  is  a  matter  not  of  a  day  or  a 
year  but  of  a  lifetime.  Nevertheless,  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  the  real  test  of  power  is  the  ability  to  use 
knowledge,  and  that  just  so  far  as  possible  provision 
should  bo  made  for  the  immediate  application  of  general 
tiiiths. 

Each  one  of  the  school  subjects  offers  opportunities 


166  School  Management 

for  the  application  of  general  truths  learned  in  the 
others.  The  daily  lives  of  the  pupils  are  filled  with 
problems,  the  solution  of  which  involves  the  application 
of  the  very  truths  that  instruction  is  or  should  be  de- 
signed to  impress.  The  daily  events  in  the  political 
and  social  world  can  be  understood  and  appreciated 
only  when  viewed  in  the  light  of  general  truths.  It  may 
be  doubted,  then,  whether  a  general  truth  that  does  not 
find  its  appropriate  field  of  application  among  important 
current  interests  has  a  rightful  place  in  a  scheme  of 
education. 

In  the  appendix  there  is  a  number  of  plans  for  reci- 
tations which  illustrate  the  application  of  the  principles 
set  forth  in  this  chapter. 

TOPICAL   REVIEW 

1.  Relationship  between  the  moral  and  intellectual  aims  of  the 
recitation. 

2.  Method  in  the  adaptation  of  truth  to  particular  minds. 

3.  Instances  of  apperception  in  daily  life. 

4.  The  relation  of  apperception  to  interest. 

5.  To  what  extent  do  the  formal  steps  suggest  a  universal  method? 


CHAPTER  Xm 
TRAINING  PUPILS  TO  STUDY 

We  hear  on  every  hand  a  complaint  that  the  modern 
child  is  not  taught  to  study.  This  criticism  is  so  uni- 
versal that  one  sometimes  wonders  if  it  is  not  due  to 
the  complaining  habit,  which  affects  all  workers  who 
seek  high  standards  and  are  hampered  by  all  kinds  of 
limitations. 

When  a  class  is  promoted  to  a  higher  grade  in  the 
grammar  school  or  high  school  their  teachers  find  the 
pupils  lacking  in  the  power  of  attention  and  applica- 
tion. Many  are  unable  to  state  clearly  and  distinctly 
what  they  have  gathered  from  the  text-book.  There  is 
a  certain  flabbiness  and  weakness  of  mind,  as  well  as 
evidence  of  scattered  interests,  which  are  most  discour- 
aging to  their  new  teachers,  and  which  suggest  the  idea 
that  something  has  been  wrong  in  their  previous  train- 
ing. It  is  often  noticed,  as  the  weeks  pass,  that  pupils 
impress  their  teachers  more  favorably.  This  is  prob- 
ably due  rather  to  a  better  acquaintance  than  to  any 
marked  development  of  ability  to  study. 

It  will  be  seen  at  once  that  training  pupils  to  study  is 
a  fundamental  process.  Nothing  that  the  teacher  can 
do  is  more  essential  to  iutellectual  growth  and  strength. 
It  means  putting  the  child  in  possession  of  the  tools 
with  which  be  is  to  work,  and  guiding  him  to  a  right  use 

167 


168  School  Management 

of  tliem,  or  it  is  like  arming  him  with  the  weapons  with 
which  he  is  to  fight  life's  intellectual  battles,  and  inspir- 
ing him  with  courage  and  skill.  It  is  well,  therefore,  to 
address  ourselves  to  the  practical  questions,  first,  what 
are  the  difl&culties  to  be  overcome  ?  second,  how  may  the 
desired  power  be  secured  ? 

1. — Some  Difficulties  in  Learning  to  Study. 

1.  Interests  of  children  are  too  much  scattered.  We 
are  speaking  now  of  life  in  some  of  the  large  towns  and 
cities.  There  is  too  much  going  on.  There  are  many 
enterprises  and  forms  of  activity  which  awaken  interest 
and  stimulate  many  grades  of  thinking.  The  varied 
life  of  the  street,  the  bustle  and  hurry  of  people  at  the 
railway  stations,  docks,  and  markets,  billboards  announ- 
cing marvellous  entertainments,  military  and  civic  dis- 
plays, holidays  just  past  and  those  expected,  multi- 
plicity of  books  and  magazines — all  these  and  many 
more  events  with  their  pleasures  and  excitements  cause 
the  child  to  be  interested  in  a  great  variety  of  things. 
The  school  has  a  harder  task  than  it  did  when  life  was 
simple  and  the  interests  of  the  community  were  f ocussed 
largely  in  the  church  and  the  school. 

2.  The  distractions  of  variety.  Both  the  home  life 
and  the  school  life  being  many-sided  and  various  tends 
to  distraction.  By  study,  we  usually  mean  the  acquisi- 
tion of  truth  from  the  printed  page.  This  means  con- 
centration of  thought  and  vividness  of  imagination.  It 
is  apparent  that  where  the  child  lives  in  the  midst  of  real 
things,  many  of  which  attract  and  interest  him,  it  is 
harder  to  secure  that  continuous  and  intense  application 


Training  Pupils  to  Study  169 

to  the  printed  page  which  is  implied  in  fruitful  study. 
If  a  military  band  passes  the^chool  everyone  is  alert 
and  listening,  and  it  takes  some  minutes  for  the  school 
to  again  become  attentive  to  the  work  in  hand ;  but  this 
illustrates  what  is  happening  all  the  time  outside  of  the 
school,  so  that  young  minds  are  diverted  and  often  ab- 
sorbed by  current  happenings  and  events.  It  is  true 
that  many  of  these  outside  occurrences  are  educative, 
and  may  be  used  by  the  skilful  teacher  as  a  means  of 
training  pupils  to  thought  and  expression,  which  are 
really  the  basic  elements  in  all  study. 

3.  School  duties  become  wearisome.  Children  at- 
tend school  from  nine  to  ten  months  in  the  year.  There 
is  usually  more  or  less  pressure.  In  many  cases  out-of- 
door  life  is  neglected.  Children  soon  tire  of  confine- 
ment, and  that  kind  of  weariness,  which  in  a  former 
chapter  we  distinguished  from  fatigue,  often  makes  the 
school  hours  seem  monotonous  and  dreary.  If  a  child 
dislikes  his  teacher  or  is  discouraged  in  his  studies,  or 
if  he  is  undergoing  a  process  of  prodding  at  home  be- 
cause his  monthly  reports  are  not  flattering,  this  weari- 
ness increases  and  it  becomes  still  harder  for  him  to 
apply  his  mind  to  the  task  in  hand. 

4.  Physical  conditions  may  be  unfavorable.  Bad  air, 
poor  light,  and  an  unwholesome  school-room  are  always 
baneful  in  their  effects  upon  study.  The  same  thing 
occurs  when  the  room  is  too  hot  or  too  cold.  If  the 
pupils  themselves  are  poorly  fed,  or  are  suffering  from 
loss  of  sleep,  or  from  any  indisposition,  their  attempts 
to  study  will  be  more  or  less  unsuccessful. 

5.  What  has  already  been  said  in  a  former  chapter 
about  definitely  assigning  lessons  points  to  a  mistake 


170  School  Management 

so  often  made  that  it  is  worth  while  to  refer  to  it  again. 
Pupils  cannot  be  expected  to  study  well  unless  the  way 
has  been  pointed  out  to  them,  so  that  they  know  where 
the  task  begins  and  where  it  ends.  Any  person,  young 
or  old,  likes  to  see  the  goal  toward  which  he  is  working. 
A  task  that  has  no  end  in  view  is  always  depressing. 

6.  Poor  teaching.  It  is  of  little  use  to  expect  that 
degree  of  interest  and  loyalty  required  for  diligent  study 
when  the  teacher  is  simply  a  machine,  and  lacks  the 
vital  element.  All  the  emphasis  that  we  have  given  to 
the  recitation  is  useless  unless  the  pupil,  acting  under 
some  legitimate  incentive,  has  entered  into  his  work  with 
interest  and  zeal. 

These,  then,  are  a  few  of  the  obstacles  which  a  teacher 
must  face  in  any  attempt  to  cultivate  the  study  habit. 
Let  us  now  inquire  what  methods  are  likely  to  be  most 
efficacious  in  overcoming  these  obstacles. 

2. — Methods  of  Seeding  Application  and  Concentration. 

1.  Cultivate  thought  and  expression.  The  work 
should  begin  in  the  primary  grades.  Pupils  should  be 
trained  to  see  things  clearly  and  to  state  accurately  what 
they  have  seen.  In  number  work,  in  nature  study,  as 
well  as  in  the  use  of  pictures,  there  is  the  opportunity 
of  developing  the  power  of  consecutive  and  prolonged 
attention,  as  well  as  of  complete  and  definite  statement. 
This  is  the  beginning  of  mental  strength.  Unless 
children  can  see  and  state  what  they  have  seen  and  ex- 
perienced, what  hope  is  there  that  they  will  be  able  to 
glean  thought  from  the  printed  page  and  clothe  it  in 
their  own  language  ? 


Training  Pupils  to  Study  171 

A  second  step  is  to  make  the  reading  lessons  serve  the 
end  of  learning  to  study.  Just  as  soon  as  pupils  can 
read  silently  stories  containing  half  a  dozen  sentences 
they  should  be  often  asked  to  read  silently,  close  the 
book,  and  give  the  thought  in  their  own  language.  This 
practice  should  be  continued  through  the  grades.  In 
some  of  the  very  best  schools  silent  reading  and  oral 
reproduction  are  made  the  principal  exercise  in  the  read- 
ing lesson.  Pupils  by  practice  acquire  remarkable" 
quickness  in  sifting  out  the  ideas  in  a  paragraph  and 
equal  facility  in  voicing  them, 

2.  Study  with  the  pupils.  If  a  class  especially  needs 
it,  the  teacher  in  assigning  the  lesson  in  geography  or 
history  may  take  up  the  advance  lesson  by  paragraphs, 
in  precisely  the  manner  indicated  above.  The  aim  is 
simply  to  crack  the  nut  and  get  out  the  meat  as  quickly 
as  possible.  Pursuing  this  plan,  with  some  slight  ex- 
planations or  questions  by  the  teacher,  a  class  will 
easily  dispose  of  a  page  of  matter  which  otherwise  might 
baffle  and  discourage  them.  While  it  is  true  that 
modern  teaching  seeks  an  acquaintance  w4th  things, 
and  strives  to  promote  experience,  yet  the  wisdom  of 
the  world  is  locked  up  in  books,  and  one  of  the  great 
ends  of  education  must  be  to  acquire  the  mastery  of  the 
key  which  will  unlock  any  room  in  this  great  store- 
house. 

3.  Supervise  the  study  periods.  The  teacher  who 
asks  his  pupils  to  study,  and  then  proceeds  to  write 
letters  or  make  up  his  reports,  is  not  only  losing  an  op- 
portunity, but  is  violating  his  trust.  He  should  be  at 
the  service  of  his  pupils,  passing  around  from  one  to  the 
other,  giving  the  needed  word  of  advice  or  encourage- 


172  School  Management 

nient,  makiug  sure  that  all  the  conditions  for  earnest 
work  are  as  favorable  as  possible.  All  study  without 
recitation  would,  of  course,  be  as  faulty  as  all  recitation 
and  no  study.  Careful  oversight  of  each  individual  in 
his  daily  work  in  connection  with  the  methods  already 
suggested  have  been  found  quite  successful  in  counter- 
acting the  effects  of  outside  distractions  and  dissipations. 

4.  Demand  a  proper  amount  of  home  study.  The 
greatest  care  should  be  taken  in  assigning  the  home 
tasks.  What  we  have  said  about  the  need  of  definite- 
ness  and  fulness  of  explanation  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  has  special  pertinence  here.  It  should  be  kept 
in  mind  that  homes  are  not  usually  well  supplied  with 
reference  books  and  it  is  often  difficult  for  pupils  to 
have  a  quiet  room  to  themselves.  That  kind  of  home 
work  should  be  assigned  which  does  not  require  the 
use  of  a  library,  and  which  is  best  adapted  to  home  con- 
ditions. It  is  better  to  have  pupils  do  a  moderate  amount 
of  work  well  than  to  be  burdened  and  discouraged  and 
to  have  the  idea  prevail  in  the  home  that  the  teacher  is 
a  sort  of  natural  enemy  and  disturber  of  the  peace. 

5.  Hold  pupils  responsible.  After  a  teacher  has  left 
no  stone  unturned  in  teaching  pupils  to  study  he  must 
hold  them  rigidly  responsible  for  the  best  use  of  their 
time.  Not  only  must  there  bo  oral  tests,  such  as  occur 
with  the  daily  recitation,  but  brief  written  tests  should 
be  given  frequently,  for  in  no  other  way  can  the 
mind  be  so  well  trained  to  formulate  whatever  ideas 
have  been  acquired.  They  give  facility  in  the  use  of 
the  mother-tongue  and  act  as  an  incentive  to  faithful 
study.  Being  a  matter  of  almost  daily  occurrence 
they  are  the  cause  of  no  special  worry. 


Training  Pupils  to  Study  173 

6.  Kegard  the  law  of  apperception.  This  law  may  be 
regarded  as  a  genuine  truth  which  is  larger  and  deeper 
than  any  of  the  devices  we  have  suggested.  The  suc- 
cess in  each  new  step  in  learning  depends  upon  the 
thoroughness  with  which  the  previous  steps  have  been 
taken  and  the  degi'ee  of  interest  and  concentration  with 
which  this  knowledge  has  been  welded  together.  If  a 
series  of  nature  lessons  has  been  given  with  such  en- 
thusiasm as  to  create  an  appetite  for  more,  and  if  these 
lessons  have  been  presented  so  progressively  as  to  fit 
together  and  make  a  consistent  body  of  knowledge, 
each  forward  step  will  be  taken  with  delight,  both  by 
teachers  and  pupils.  The  new  lesson  is  partly  learned 
by  reason  of  the  firm  grasp  which  the  mind  has  of 
what  has  already  been  learned.  It  makes  the  process 
of  study  easier,  therefore,  to  have  assigned  as  a  lesson 
that  portion  of  truth  which  may  be  readily  and  quickly 
apperceived  and  joined  to  the  previous  lessons.  All 
our  past  exi^erience  is  our  capital,  which  we  invest  in 
new  enterprises,  and  so  make  additions  to  our  wealth. 
Where  to  invest  and  when  to  invest,  and  how  much, 
calls  for  the  guidance  of  a  far-sighted  and  experienced 
person,  who  is  our  teacher. 

These  are  a  few  of  the  suggestions  that  will  occur  to 
every  thoughtful  teacher  who  desires  to  have  her  pupils 
study  efibctively.  It  is  encouraging  to  know  that  in 
using  such  devices  and  in  overcoming  the  obstacles 
which  we  have  indicated,  the  power  of  attention  is 
being  developed  and  the  conscious  will  is  more  and 
more  at  the  service  of  the  learner.  The  interest  he  feels 
assumes  a  higher  and  more  mature  form.  He  is  held 
to  his  task   not   merely  by  the   attractiveness  of   the 


174)  School  Management 

lesson  material  and  the  desire  to  gain  tlie  approval  of 
his  teacher,  but  because  of  the  pleasure  of  surmounting 
difficulty  and  of  winning  the  victory. 

Again,  a  pupil  who  learns  to  study  and  can  dig  at  his 
lessons  even  when  there  is  a  noise  in  the  street  or  peo- 
ple are  inconsiderately  talking  in  the  same  room  is  ac- 
quiring a  habit  of  concentration,  a  conscious  strength 
for  the  problems  of  life,  which  are  priceless  possessions. 

How  clearly  it  is  seen  that  every  activity  of  the 
school  has  its  moral  as  well  as  its  intellectual  side. 
How  manifest  it  is  that,  after  all,  knowledge  is  second- 
ary and  that  in  learning  to  study,  the  pupil  is  not  really 
engaged  in  a  hunt  after  facts,  but  is  gaining  power  of 
untold  value.  He  is  learning  to  realize  himself  and  to 
organize  his  moral  and  intellectual  forces  for  the  great 
battles  of  life. 

TOPICAL  REVIEW 

I .  What  is  it  to  study  ? 

a.  How  may  parents  assist  the  teachers  ? 

3.  Means  of  preventing  weariness. 

4.  The  difference  between  voluntary  and  involuntary  attention. 

5.  The  teaching  that  commands  attention. 

6.  The  value  of  quietness. 

7.  How  early  may  students  be  taught  the  value  of  apperception? 


CHAPTER  XrV 

REVIEWS  AND  EXAMINATIONS 

In  the  use  of  reviews  and  examinations  we  should  be 
governed  by  the  same  motives  and  aims  we  have  fol- 
lowed in  training  pupils  to  study.  All  school  work  is 
broadly  educative.  We  must  not  let  down  an  instant  our 
high  standard  of  character  building.  As  a  review  is 
simply  a  lesson  made  longer  because  it  is  partly  repeti- 
tion, so  every  examination  is  simply  an  extension  of  the 
recitation  idea  and  must  be  conducted  upon  the  same 
principles.  The  pupil  must  not  be  overtaxed  or  wor- 
ried ;  he  must  not  be  put  under  temptation  to  act  dis- 
honestly ;  he  must  not  be  permitted  to  neglect  his 
daily  work  in  the  hope  that  by  cramming  he  may  pass 
an  examination  and  so  maintain  his  standing.  Let  us 
candidly  and  frankly  consider  the  more  salient  phases 
of  this  subject. 

1. — The  Valiie  of  Thoroughness. 

Keeping  in  mind  the  law  of  apperception,  we  see  how 
desirable  it  is  that  lesson  truths  should  be  clearly  pre- 
sented and  understood  and  should  also,  as  far  as  is  pos- 
sible, be  welded  together  into  a  compact  whole.  The 
review  of  a  series  of  lessons,  or  of  an  entire  subject,  is  a 
good  means  of  making  the  class  see  the  body  of  truth 
in  better  perspective.     The  relation  of  the  parts  to  the 

176 


176  School  Management 

whole  are  more  clearly  discerned,  and  causal  relations 
stand  out  more  prominently. 

Many  teachers  err  in  failing  to  carr}-  on  from  day  to 
day  a  review  which  requires  a  few  minutes  of  the  reci- 
tation time.  Such  a  review  is  like  the  rear-guard  of  an 
army.  It  gathers  up  the  straggling  points,  so  that  when 
the  end  of  the  term  is  reached  no  time  has  to  be  spent 
in  making  sure  that  the  class  has  a  good  grasp  of  the 
field  they  have  traversed.  The  writer  has  known  more 
than  one  teacher  who,  while  having  a  review,  following 
not  many  Aveeks  behind  the  advance,  had  also  during 
the  last  half  of  the  term  a  re-review  which  proceeded 
rapidly  and  overtook  both  review  and  advance  at  the 
end  of  the  term.  In  all  review  work  emphasis  is  given 
to  ideals  that  are  large  and  important.  Minute  and  un- 
essential matters  are  avoided.  This  saves  time  and 
helps  the  pupil  to  discriminate  betw^een  great  and 
small,  essential  and  non-essential.  Much  stress  is  laid 
upon  principles,  rules,  and  pivotal  events.  A  few  great 
names,  dates,  and  controlling  ideas,  through  this  proc- 
ess of  repetition,  become  fixed  in  the  mind  and  can  be 
recalled  at  will.  The  child  has  little  occasion  to  thank 
his  teacher  unless  he  puts  him  in  possession  of  great 
central  truths  in  every  department  of  knowledge  in 
such  a  way  that  he  can  count  them  among  his  assets. 

2. — Oral  and  Written  Tests. 

In  the  preceding  chapter  we  have  shown  the  value  of 
tests  as  a  means  of  making  the  pupils  responsible  for 
the  use  of  the  study  period.  We  wish  now  to  indicate 
their  place  as  a  means  of  revealing  to  the  teacher  what 
the  individuals  of  a  class  actually  know. 


Reviews  and  Examinations  177 

Some  years  ago  oral  tests  were  largely  discarded  for 
written  examinations.  As  is  often  the  ease,  the  pendu- 
lum probably  swung  too  far.  It  is  quite  unusual  now 
for  a  teacher  to  put  her  class  under  the  fire  of  review 
questions  for  a  whole  hour.  It  would  be  well  were  it 
possible  to  recover  to  some  extent  what  has  been  lost. 
The  old-time  teacher  possessed  power  and  skill  in 
questioning  which  may  well  be  envied.  In  an  oral  test 
where  one  question  follows  another,  pupils  being  per- 
mitted to  respond  by  raising  the  hand,  the  teacher  dis- 
covers who  have  a  ready  command  of  the  subject.  The 
answers  given  indicate  not  only  how  well  his  own  work 
has  been  done,  but  how  faithfully  his  jDupils  have 
worked.  Such  oral  interrogation  of  the  class  seems  to 
be  a  natural  accompaniment  of  the  review  work. 
Then,  too,  the  oral  test  has  the  advantage  of  the 
written  one  in  that  it  relieves  the  class  of  the  almost 
ceaseless  use  of  pen  and  pencil,  which  has  become 
characteristic  of  our  schools,  and  calls  for  a  higher 
degree  of  promptitude  than  does  the  written  test. 
Another  advantage  comes  from  the  fact  that  when 
the  exercise  is  concluded  the  teacher's  work  is  done, 
and  he  is  not  compelled  to  examine  a  lot  of  pa- 
pers, thus  taxing  his  eyes  and  his  brain  when  he 
should  be  gaining  rest  or  recreation.  These  sugges- 
tions touching  the  value  of  oral  tests  bring  to  our  mind 
the  thought  that  in  passing  from  the  old  education  to 
the  new  we  are  ever  in  danger  of  abandoning  devices 
which  have  intrinsic  worth,  and  we  are  reminded  that 
progress  consists  not  so  much  in  finding  new  ways  of 
doing  things  as  in  making  a  better  and  more  intelligent 
use  of  things  that  ave  counted  old- 


178  School  Management 

3. — Educative  Examinations. 

In  Chapter  VI.  we  have  discussed  the  relation  of  ex- 
aminations to  rewards,  prizes,  and  promotions.  We 
have  shown  that  if  they  are  too  formal,  and  come  at 
stated  times,  and  if  the  standing  in  class  and  the  pro- 
motion of  pupils  is  dependent  upon  them,  they  become, 
in  many  cases,  harmful  and  unhygienic.  Dr  White 
referred  to  this  subject  in  forcible  language  as  fol- 
lows :  * 

"  The  tendency  of  teachers  to  use  a  coming  examina- 
tion as  a  whip  or  spur  to  urge  their  pupils  to  greater 
application  is  one  of  the  most  serious  obstacles  to  be 
overcome  in  the  use  of  the  system.  A  reliance  on  such 
help  is  a  misfortune  for  the  teacher  and  a  wrong  to  the 
pupil.  It  ought  to  be  recognized  as  a  school  crime  for 
a  teacher  thus  to  allude  to  an  examination.  It  should 
be  permitted  to  come  unheralded." 

It  may  be  assumed  that  the  above  statement,  coming 
from  a  person  of  wide  experience  and  large  wisdom,  is 
not  an  exaggeration.  Examinations  may  be  given  a 
limited  importance  in  determining  the  promotion  of 
pupils  without  harm,  but  the  evils  which  attend  the 
promotions  made  upon  an  examination  standard  are 
serious.  We  must  now  recognize  very  fully  the  merits 
of  examinations  given  as  a  means  of  cultivating  intel- 
lectual strength.  Like  oral  and  written  tests,  examina- 
tions should  be  incidental  and  unannounced,  and  their 
sole  aim  should  be  to  reinforce  the  teaching  and  to  de- 
velop the  pupil.  When,  as  in  these  modern  days,  so 
much  of  the  learning  is  outside  of  text-books,  and  pupils 

*"  Elements  of  Pedagogy,"  page  204, 


Reviews  and  Exanmiations  179 

in  an  elementary  way  are  engaged  iu  investigation  and 
research,  the  examination  serves  many  useful  purposes. 

4. — Advantages  to  Pupils. 

1.  It  calls  for  a  longer,  more  sustained  effoi*t  than  the 
ordinary  recitation  or  test.  While  an  examination  an 
hour  or  an  hour  and  a  half  long  may  cause  fatigue,  it  is 
only  in  rare  instances  that  evil  results  follow.  It  is 
rather  beneficial  to  the  young  person  to  summon  his 
energies  and  marshal  his  forces  for  a  greater  and  more 
strenuous  effort  than  usual. 

2.  The  examination  is  a  stronger  reminder  than  the 
recitation  or  brief  test  of  individual  responsibility.  A 
pupil  will  perchance  remember  while  pursuing  his 
studies  that  an  examination  may  come  the  next  day,  or 
the  next  week,  and  thus  be  impelled  to  make  provision 
for  that  occasion.  He  will  be  prompted  to  arrange  and 
organize  his  knowledge  so  that  he  can  use  it  when  the 
day  of  testing  arrives.  He  will  not  be  absent  from 
school  on  flimsy  pretexts,  because  he  knows  that  each 
day's  knowledge  means  a  link  in  the  chain  which  is  to 
hold  him  upon  examination  day. 

3.  The  examination  gives  valuable  training  in  lan- 
guage. Pupils  should  be  expected  to  put  their  work  in  as 
good  form  as  possible.  This  is  entirely  feasible  when 
the  examination  is  not  used  for  some  ulterior  purpose. 
As  an  educative  means  it  should  represent  the  best  a 
pupil  can  do  in  matter  of  fact,  forms  of  statement, 
quality  of  penmanship,  sentence-maldug,  paragraphing, 
spelling,  and  punctuation. 

4.  The  examination,  if  wisely  given,  affords  excellent 


180  School  Management 

training  of  the  pupil's  judgment.  The  topics  and  ques- 
tions assigned  will  naturally  cover  considerable  area,  and 
will  leave  room,  on  the  pupil's  part,  for  the  exercise  of 
discrimination  and  selection.  Thus  he  will  get  prac- 
tice in  philosophical  thinking  and  reasoning,  and  this 
will  become  more  and  more  true  as  he  advances 
through  the  grades.  The  higher  he  gets  the  more  the 
examination  should  bo  a  test  of  his  reasoning  rather 
than  of  his  memory.  The  school  that  does  not  place  a 
high  estimate  upon  common  sense  and  sound  judgment, 
as  shown  in  examination  papers,  needs  to  be  reformed. 

5. — Advantages  to  the  Teacher. 

1.  Examinations,  like  oral  and  written  tests,  are  an 
economical  means  of  finding  out  what  a  class  knows,  and 
to  what  extent  its  members  can  use  what  they  have  ac- 
quired. 

2.  A  set  of  examination  papers  will  often  serve  to  a 
teacher  the  purpose  of  a  mirror  in  which  he  sees  himself 
as  a  factor  in  the  education  of  his  pupils.  He  will  know 
whether  he  has  undertaken  too  much,  and  whether 
fundamental  truths  have  been  driven  home.  In  other 
words,  by  examining  his  pupils  he  is  testing  his  own 
work,  and  is  learning  how  to  make  his  teaching  more 
interesting  and  effective. 

3.  The  examination  of  a  large  class  often  reveals  com- 
mon weaknesses  and  lapses  of  judgment.  The  teacher 
can  go  over  these  errors  with  the  whole  class,  and  can 
thus  accomplish  at  a  single  stroke  what  under  other 
conditions  would  require  much  labor. 

4.  When  parents  have  too  high   an   opinion  of  the 


Reviews  and  Examinations  181 

ability  of  their  own  cbildreu,  a  set  of  examination 
papers  is  often  useful  in  showing  the  relative  ability  of 
the  child  in  question  as  compared  with  others.  Such 
tangible  evidence  of  the  child's  actual  standing  can  be 
used  by  the  teacher  when  difficult  questions  arise  about 
promotion. 

6. — Suggestions  to  Teachers. 

1.  Make  tests  and  examinations  both  oral  and  writ- 
ten. Oral  tests  bring  the  teacher  nearer  to  the  pupil 
and  enable  him  to  make  his  questions  perfectly  clear. 
He  can  pursue  a  line  of  questioning  that  will  unfold 
the  subject  more  logically  and  fully  than  is  possible 
in  the  written  test.  Thus  unity  and  clearness  in  sub- 
ject-matter are  secured.  Written  examinations  oflfer 
uniform  comlitious  to  all,  and  from  their  results  the 
teacher  can  gauge  more  accurately  the  relative  ability 
of  his  pupils. 

2.  While  examinations  in  the  lower  grades  are  largely 
upon  matters  of  fact,  in  the  higher  grades  they  should 
call  increasingly  for  a  knowledge  of  princij^les,  rules, 
causes  and  eifects,  relations  and  correlations.  The  power 
to  draw  conclusions,  state  principles,  and  to  generalize 
should  be  well  developed  during  the  grammar  school 
stage. 

3.  Examinations  should  not  be  so  long  as  to  weary 
pupils  greatly  or  to  become  excessively  distasteful. 
In  intermediate  grades  from  one-half  to  three-quarters 
of  an  hour,  in  the  higher  grammar  grades  one  hour, 
and  in  the  high  school  an  hour  and  a  half  should  be 
maximum  limits. 

One  examination  should  not  follow  closely  upon  an- 


182  School  Management 

other.  Too  often  at  the  eucl  of  the  term,  or  of  the  year, 
when  pupils  are  not  in  the  best  physical  condition,  a 
series  of  examinations  lasting  for  several  days  is  given, 
contrary  to  the  laws  of  hygiene  and  the  advice  of  physi- 
cians. Abandon  the  idea  of  using  examinations  for 
promotion,  or  for  prizes,  and  there  is  little,  if  any,  need 
of  this  objectionable  feature. 

4.  Have  pupils  frequently  correct  their  own  papers 
after  teachers  have  pointed  out  the  main  truths  which 
the  examination  was  intended  to  teach.  This  saves 
the  teacher,  and  is  an  excellent  discipline  for  the  pupils. 

5.  Do  not  tell  the  class  when  the  examination  is  to 
occur.  Let  each  day's  work  be  done  so  thoroughly  that 
they  are  never  taken  off  their  guard  when  the  test  is 
given.  In  every-day  life  the  demand  comes  frequently 
for  the  performance  of  some  special  duty.  The  ability 
to  render  service  at  short  notice  is  worth  cultivating  in 
early  life. 

It  has  been  a  matter  of  much  concern  to  educators 
and  other  thoughtful  people  that  the  larger  Eastern 
colleges  insist  upon  difficult  entrance  examinations. 
This  can  be  partially  excused  by  reason  of  the  fact  that 
some  inferior  secondary  schools  cannot  be  trusted  to 
certificate  their  candidates,  and  that  other  schools  of 
higher  standing  prefer  to  have  their  pupils  examined. 
Nevertheless,  there  is  a  principle  at  stake  here  that  is 
violated  whenever  a  superior  institution  sets  examina- 
tions for  the  one  that  feeds  it.  This  principle  is  that 
outside  parties  are  quite  sure  to  do  injustice  both  to 
teachers  and  pupils  of  any  school  where  they  impose 
rigid  examinations.  The  instruction  is  likely  to  be 
narrowed  and  more  attention  is  given  to  cramming  than 


Reviews  and  Examinations  183 

to  educating.    I  will  leave  this  subject  by  quoting  some 
pertinent  remarks  by  Dr.  James  E.  Eussell :  * 

"  Examinations  must  have  a  place  in  every  scheme  of 
instruction.  Instruction  can  proceed  only  when  the 
extent  and  quality  of  the  learner's  knowledge  is  defi- 
nitely understood.  Every  recitation,  every  review,  is 
such  an  examination ;  further  examinations  of  a  formal 
sort  are  often  desirable  for  the  sake  both  of  the  teacher 
and  of  the  pupil.  But  such  examinations  are  given  by 
teachers  within  the  school  or  school  system  and  pri- 
marily for  the  purpose  of  instruction.  Examinations  by 
those  outside  the  school,  especially  when  given  for  the 
purpose  of  determining  a  pupil's  ability  to  undertake  an 
entirely  new  course  of  instruction,  have  no  educational 
value /or  the  pupil  which  cannot  be  secured  equally  well 
in  some  less  reprehensible  way.  Such  examinations, 
however,  are  practically  necessary  when  intellectual 
attainment  is  not  the  only  aim  of  school  instruction, 
and  both  necessary  and  inevitable  when  that  instruction 
is  inefficient.  Outside  examinations  are  imperative 
whenever  the  secondary  schools  are  unable  or  unwilling 
to  assume  the  responsibility  of  meeting  the  require- 
ments for  admission  to  colleges  and  universities. 
Until  a  norm  of  secondary  instruction  is  established 
and  generally  recognized,  college  entrance  examinations 
cannot  be  dispensed  with.  The  sole  object  of  this 
paper  is  to  show  that  such  examinations  have  no  espe- 
cial educational  value  for  those  who  are  examined ;  they 
do  have  a  distinct  value  in  om-  school  system  and  must 
be  retained  until  some  better  plan  is  found  for  keep- 
ing weak  schools  up  to  grade  and  for  the  elimination  of 

*  School  Review^  January,  1903,  page  53. 


•181  School  Management 

bad  teachiug.  The  scheme  of  college  entrance  exami- 
nations is  altogether  a  matter  of  temporary  expediency. 
It  tests  merely  the  candidate's  store  of  learning  and  to 
some  extent  his  ability  to  use  that  learning ;  it  does  not 
measure  his  intellectual  desires,  his  moral  strength,  or 
his  {esthetic  taste.  Meanwhile  it  is  our  duty  to  find 
some  way  of  assuring  the  intellectual  ability  which 
students  must  have  on  admission  to  college  and  at  the 
same  time  of  encouraging  the  preparatory  schools  to 
emphasize  in  their  course  of  training  the  manly  virtues 
and  the  liberal  cultui-e  which  all  men  need  in  life." 

TOPICAL  REVIEW 

1.  What  limitations  are  to  be  placed  upon  thoroughness? 

2.  The  psychological  argument  for  reviews. 

3.  Compare  the  states  of  mind  accompanying  written  and  oral 
tests. 

4.  The  examination  as  an  incentive. 

5.  The  moral  issues  involved  in  examinations. 

6.  Plans  for  reducing  the  paper  work  of  teachers. 


^6HbOL    GARDENS,     PLAYGROUNDS,   AND 
VACATION  SCHOOLS 

To  the  great  mass  of  children  in  our  large  cities 
vacation  time  calls  up  associations  very  different  from 
those  so  eagerly  anticipated  by  the  fortunate  ones  who 
spend  the  summer  months  at  the  sea-shore,  among  the 
mountains,  or  on  country  estates.  Instead  of  green 
fields,  invigorating  breezes,  and  shady  groves,  the 
children  who  remain  in  the  cities  have  as  their  fortune 
noisy  streets,  sultry  air,  and  occasionally  a  vacant  lot. 
Crowded,  poorly  ventilated  tenements  are  well-nigh 
uninhabitable  during  the  periods  of  excessive  heat. 
Parks  are  available  as  playgrounds  for  only  an  insignif- 
icant number  of  the  vast  multitude  of  children.  Thou- 
sands must  therefore  swarm  daily  in  the  streets,  leading 
aimless  lives  of  enforced  idleness,  enticing  one  another 
into  mischief,  vice,  and  petty  crime.  Most  games  cannot 
be  carried  on  in  the  crowded  thoroughfares  without 
seriously  obstructing  traffic  and  endangering  the  lives 
of  the  children.  The  police  are  thus  often  compelled 
to  interfere  with  the  efforts  of  children  to  engage  in 
innocent  enjoyment.  Officers  of  the  law  come  to  be 
regarded  as  natural  and  arbitrary  enemies ;  evasion  of 
the  law  and  the  destruction  of  property  as  the  normal 
outlet  for  energy  and  ambition. 

185 


186  School  Management 

It  is  evident  that  vacation  months  spent  under  these 
unwholesome  conditions  are  worse  than  wasted.  The 
eftect  upon  the  physical  and  moral  development  of  the 
children  must  be  far-reaching  and  disastrous.  Habits 
of  smoking,  thieving,  and  gambling  develop  without 
even  the  hinderances  offered  during  school  time ;  lawless 
adventure,  craftiness,  and  dishonesty  are  encouraged 
by  the  very  necessities  of  the  otherwise  unoccupied 
time;  and  a  full  quarter  of  the  whole  amount  of  time 
available  for  the  training  of  the  boys  and  girls  passes  by 
unutilized.  The  idle  and  crafty  boy  will  most  certainly 
prove  to  be  the  father  of  the  dissolute  and  criminal 
man. 

There  is  a  strong  call  here  for  a  return  to  nature ;  for 
contact  with  the  earth  and  its  creatures,  with  flowers 
and  trees ;  for  free  life  in  the  open  fields ;  for  whole- 
some activity  of  a  kind  that  will  do  something  to  enrich 
the  starved  lives  of  the  children,  that  will  contribute 
materially  to  the  equij^ment  of  the  youth  for  the  stern 
struggle  that  they  soon  must  face,  that  will  strongly 
emphasize  the  idea  of  sober,  industrious,  and  law-abiding 
citizenship. 

It  is  one  of  the  notable  signs  of  the  tendency  of 
educational  thought  and  practice  that  so  much  attention 
has  been  given  during  recent  years  to  the  solution  of 
some  of  the  problems  arising  out  of  the  social  conditions 
just  described.  There  is  a  growing  conviction  that 
every  school  should  meet,  in  a  very  direct  and  practical 
way,  the  social  demands  of  the  community  in  which  it 
is  located.  Among  the  most  conspicuous  ways  in  which 
this  conviction  has  expressed  itself  is  the  establishing 
of  school  gardens,  playgrounds,  and  vacation  schools. 


School  Gai'deiis  and  Playgi^ounds       187 


1. — School  Gardens. 

First  in  point  of  time,  though  not  so  directly  in 
response  to  the  vacation  needs  of  city  children,  was 
the  opening  of  school  gardens.  For  almost  fifty  years 
school  gardens  have  been  recognized  in  Europe  as  an 
important  and  almost  necessary  means  of  instruction. 
Austria,  Sweden,  and  Germany  were  the  first  to  intro- 
duce gardens  as  the  most  practical  form  of  agricultural 
nature  study,  and  their  example  was  quickly  followed  by 
most  of  the  leading  European  nations.  It  was  not  until 
1891  that  Boston  took  the  lead  in  the  school-garden 
movement  in  this  country  by  utilizing  a  small  plot  of 
ground  in  connection  with  one  of  the  grammar  schools 
for  the  raising  of  native  wild  flowers.  A  few  years  later 
this  same  school  added  another  small  plot  for  the 
cultivation  of  vegetables.  Since  this  beginning,  twelve 
years  ago,  more  than  fifty  cities  in  the  United  States 
have  made  some  provision  for  school  gardens. 

2. — Educative  Factors. 

The  special  need  of  garden  work  in  the  congested 
districts  of  large  cities  lies  in  the  very  limited  o^^por- 
tunity  that  the  children  of  these  districts  have  for 
direct  knowledge  of  some  of  the  commonest  natural 
phenomena.  But  aside  from  this  special  need,  there  is 
a  peculiar  value  to  such  work  that  applies  to  all  children, 
whatever  their  locality.  This  value  lies  in  the  close 
connection  that  is  almost  necessarily  made  between 
theory  and  practice  in  this  form  of  activity.     A  pupil 


188  School  Management 

must  not  only  be  able  to  describe  the  difference  between 
weeds  and  vegetables,  but  lie  must  actually  decide  the 
difference  in  a  practical  way  if  be  is  to  have  a  successful 
garden.  So  also  he  must  apply  the  test  of  practice  to 
his  knowledge  of  the  character  and  preparation  of  soil, 
of  the  time  of  year  best  suited  to  planting,  of  the  habits 
of  insects  and  other  forms  of  animal  life  injurious  or 
beneficial  to  his  garden  plants.  These  are  only  a  few 
of  the  great  number  of  topics  that  grow  out  of  the 
practical  requirements  of  successful  garden  work. 

Much  school  work  is  being  criticised,  perhaps  justly 
so,  on  the  ground  that  it  fails  to  make  full  provision  for 
just  this  sort  of  application  for  theoretical  work.  In 
almost  every  human  concern  outside  the  school  there 
is  constant  demand  for  a  relatively  large  amount  of 
practice,  as  opposed  to  mere  reflective  study  that  does 
not  end  in  application.  There  is,  therefore,  strong  social 
sanction  for  a  close  and  vital  union  between  theoretical 
and  practical  work.  Another  urgent  reason  for  seeking 
a  constant  outlet  for  thought  in  action  is  found  in  the 
interest  of  children,  which  is  rarely  satisfied  unless 
opportunity  is  given  for  the  expression  of  ideas  in 
definite,  concrete,  constructive  form.  The  school  garden 
meets  both  the  social  and  the  psychological  require- 
ments, by  furnishing  a  centre  of  activity  that  pro- 
vides direct  and  full  motive  for  an  important  body  of 
knowledge  about  nature.  It  is  evident  that,  without 
some  such  centre  of  active  interest,  the  study  of  natural 
phenomena  must  be  relatively  isolated,  formal,  and 
dead. 


School  Gardens  and  Playgrounds      189 


3. — Equipment. 

The  cost  of  equipment  for  school  gardens  is,  of  course, 
almost  wholly  a  matter  of  laud  values.  In  some  parts 
of  the  large  cities  the  cost  of  land  is  such  as  to  be  almost 
prohibitory.  A  part  of  the  school-yard  is  in  some  cases 
set  apart  for  garden  purposes.  Where  vacant  lots  are 
available  in  the  neighborhood  of  a  school,  the  use  of  the 
land  may  be  secured  even  if  the  laud  is  not  purchased. 
In  some  cities  plots  in  the  public  parks  have  been 
granted  to  the  school,  and  in  at  least  one  case  a  small 
garden  has  been  opened  on  the  roof  of  the  school- 
building.  Where  none  of  these  ways  of  securing  the 
ground  necessary  for  a  garden  are  open  there  remains 
the  expedient  of  using  window-boxes,  by  means  of  which 
many  of  the  advantages  of  gardens  may  be  provided. 

When  ground  space  will  allow,  it  is  highly  desirable 
that  each  pupil  be  assigned  his  own  garden-plot.  The 
sense  of  ownership  and  of  individual  responsibility  that 
results  from  such  an  assignment  always  proves  to  be 
a  powerful  and  educative  influence.  The  results  of 
mistakes  and  neglect  are  written  large  by  the  hand  of 
Nature  herself,  and  even  the  most  backward  pupils 
cannot  fail  to  learn  her  lessons. 

4. — Playgrounds  and  Play-ceMfres. 

Playgrounds  and  play-centres  were  originally  not  the 
outgrowth  of  educational  but  of  purely  social  interest. 
The  first  playgrounds  that  were  opened  in  our  large 
cities  were  under  the  auspices  of  social  settlements  and 
other  societies  having  distinctly  humanitarian  or  phil- 


190  School  Management 

antliropic  aims.  To  those  in  constant  and  intimate 
touch  Avith  the  conditions  that  prevail  in  tlie  crowded 
districts  of  most  Large  cities,  it  was  evident  that  through 
hick  of  opportunity  for  healthful,  spontaneous  play 
childhood  in  these  regions  was  being  robbed  of  its  chief 
joy.  That  the  systematic  provision  for  such  activity 
has  become  more  and  more  closely  identified  with  the 
public  schools  of  our  cities  is  evidence  of  the  enlarging 
view  of  the  meaning  of  education,  and  consequently  of 
the  function  of  the  school  as  a  social  institution. 

A  single  instance  will  illustrate  the  great  need  in  the 
large  cities  of  recreation  centres  other  than  the  public 
parks.  The  city  of  Chicago  is  unusually  well  provided 
with  parks  of  large  area,  and  with  connecting  boule- 
vards. Yet  in  this  city  there  are  600,000  to  700,000 
people  who  live  more  than  a  mile  from  any  park.  It  is 
ordinarily  imj^racticable  for  a  large  city  to  provide 
extensive  parks  in  numbers  sufficient  to  make  them 
readily  accessible  from  all  parts  of  the  city.  The  only 
alternative  is  to  find  small  recreation  centres,  properly 
distributed  over  the  entire  area,  and,  as  every  school- 
building  as  a  rule  has  some  form  of  playground,  either 
in  a  yard,  in  the  basement,  or  on  the  roof,  it  seems 
quite  natural  that  the  persons  interested  in  providing 
vacation  playgrounds  for  children  should  have  looked 
to  the  school-grounds  to  supply  the  need. 

The  equipment  of  the  playgrounds  varies  somewhat 
with  the  size  and  location.  Where  the  space  is  con- 
tracted, as  in  the  case  of  the  basement  aud  roof  play- 
grounds, the  equipment  consists  of  sand-bins,  build- 
ing-blocks, jumping-ropes,  Indian  clubs,  dumb-bells, 
bean-bags,  balls,  rubber  quoits,  ring-toss  apparatus,  and, 


School  Gay-dens  cmd  Playgrounds      191 

occasionally,  basket-ball  and  hand-ball  courts.  In  addi. 
tion  to  such  equipment  as  this  there  are  provided,  in 
the  large  open-air  playgrounds,  swings,  seesaws,  climb- 
ing ropes  and  ladders,  hoops,  wheelbarrows  and  shovels, 
horizontal  and  parallel  bars,  and  other  apparatus  suit- 
able for  an  outdoor  gymnasium.  In  some  of  the  larger 
grounds  provision  is  made  for  running  games,  such  as 
prisoner's  base  ;  and  in  some  cases  hammocks  are  pro- 
vided, where  mothers  who  come  to  the  grounds  with 
their  children  may  put  their  babies  to  sleep  in  the  fresh 
air. 

It  is  an  interesting  commentary  on  the  knowledge 
that  a  large  proportion  of  city  children  have  of  co-oper- 
ative forms  of  play,  that  the  swings  are  by  far  the  most 
popular  form  of  apparatus  in  the  playgrounds,  and  that 
many  of  the  children  at  first  are  utterly  unable  to  take 
part  in  the  games  requiring  co-operation.  Unless  the 
most  careful  supervision  is  given,  the  older  children 
push  the  younger  ones  aside  from  the  swings  and  keep 
possession  for  an  unlimited  time. 

Expert  supervision  of  the  playground  is  necessary 
not  only  to  preserve  order  and  to  protect  the  younger 
children  from  the  imposition  of  the  older,  but  to  teach 
the  children  how  to  play.  Many  children  are  almost 
wholly  without  initiative.  Others,  while  possessed  of 
strong  initiative  and  energy,  are  ignorant  of  all  except 
the  most  crude  and  rough  games.  The  successful  direc- 
tion of  playgrounds  probably  calls,  therefore,  for  as 
much  skill  and  knowledge  of  children  as  any  other  form 
of  educational  work. 

The  so-called  play-centres  are  very  similar  in  equip- 
ment and  administration  to  the  playgrounds,  the  main 


192  School  Management 

distiDction  being  that  the  play-centres  arc  open  in  the 
evening  instead  of  during  the  daytime.  The  forms  of 
activity  are,  accordingly,  more  restrained  than  those  of 
the  playgrounds,  and  there  is  often  a  place  set  apart 
for  reading  and  quiet  games. 

A  noteworthy  feature  of  the  recreation  centres  con- 
trolled by  the  school  department  of  New  York  City  is 
the  recreation  piers.  These  piers  are  built  as  upper 
decks  of  a  number  of  the  regular  commercial  docks  be- 
longing to  the  city.  These  upper  floors  offer  cool  and 
attractive  retreats  from  the  sultry  streets  in  summer. 
They  are  open  both  day  and  evening  under  appropriate 
supervision.  Bands  of  music  add  to  the  attractiveness 
of  these  centres  during  the  summer  evenings. 

The  directors  of  playgrounds  and  play-centres  almost 
imiformly  agree  in  reporting  that  the  danger  of  ex- 
treme unruliness  and  of  wanton  destraction  of  property 
is  very  slight,  and  that  the  assistance  of  the  police  is 
rarely  needed.  The  same  spirit  that  commonly  shows 
itself  in  the  riotous  proceedings  of  street  gangs  finds 
expression,  when  opportunity  is  given,  in  athletic  teams 
and  other  wholesome  forms  of  co-operation. 

5. — Reasons  for  Vacation  ScJiools. 

Vacation  schools,  like  the  playgrounds,  owe  their 
origin  to  an  interest  not  primarily  educational  in  the 
narrow  sense,  but  social  and  philanthropic.  The  schools 
grew  out  of  a  desire  to  provide,  for  the  older  children 
especially,  some  form  of  activity  that  should  give  zest 
and  pleasure  to  the  vacation  months,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  yield  results  more  distinctly  educative  than  the 
playgrounds  were  thought  to  do. 


School  Gardens  and  Playgrounds       193 


6. — Aims. 

With  but  few  exceptions,  the  movement  for  vacation 
schools  in  almost  all  of  the  large  cities  of  the  United 
States  has  been  inaugurated  by  women's  clubs  and  fed- 
erations. In  almost  every  case,  too,  the  desire  has  been 
to  maintain  the  schools  as  object-lessons  until  the  de- 
partment of  public  education  could  be  induced  to  take 
up  the  work  as  a  regular  part  of  its  system.  In  several 
cities — notably  in  New  York,  Boston,  and  Philadelphia — 
this  desire  of  the  originators  has  been  fully  realized. 
In  other  cities,  as  in  Chicago  and  Pittsburg,  the  use  at 
least  of  the  public-school  equipment  has  been  obtained, 
though  the  direct  responsibility  for  the  work  of  the 
vacation  schools  remains  with  the  women's  clubs. 

1  .—3Ietliods. 

The  same  general  plan  of  work  has  been  followed  by 
all  of  these  schools.  Briefly  stated,  the  plan  excludes 
the  use  of  books  and  provides  for  a  maximum  amount 
of  hand-work,  for  direct  observation  of  objects  studied, 
and  for  numerous  excursions,  or,  more  briefly  still,  the 
plan  is  to  provide  all  opportunity  for  seeing  and  doing. 

Among  the  forms  of  activity  most  frequently  found 
in  the  schools  are  whittling,  paper-folding,  and  card- 
board construction  ;  drawing,  painting,  and  designing ; 
singing,  marching,  and  gymnastics ;  chair  caning,  bas- 
ketry, bench  work,  fret-sawing,  and  Venetian  iron-work  ; 
sewing,  cooking,  weaving,  embroider}^  crocheting,  mil- 
linery, and  dress-making.  Excursions  to  parks  and  coun- 
try are  made  the  occasion  for  djrect  observation  and 


194  School   Management 

study  of  nature  and  for  spontaneous  and  unobstructed 
play  in  the  open  air.  In  some  cities  these  excursions 
have  been  made  the  correlating  centre  for  almost  all  of 
tlie  M'ork  of  the  vacation  schools.  In  others  the  excur- 
sions have  been  regarded  as  pleasure  trips  without  much 
direct  bearing  upon  the  educational  activity  of  the 
schools.  In  most  cases,  however,  the  excursions  have 
been  a  happy  combination  of  serious  study  and  invig- 
orating outing. 

The  details  of  organization  and  of  administration  re- 
quire as  careful  attention  in  vacation  schools  as  in  the 
traditional  schools  of  the  regular  session.  The  experi- 
ment of  conducting  the  schools  without  a  corps  of  ad- 
ministrative officers,  depending  Tipon  a  head  teacher  in 
each  school  to  perform  the  duties  of  principal,  has  been 
tried.  Where  the  number  and  size  of  the  schools  have 
been  large,  such  experiments  have  not  been  successful. 
Most  of  the  problems  that  arise  in  the  administration 
of  other  schools  are  found  here,  and,  in  addition  to 
these,  special  problems  due  to  the  fact  that  this  work 
is  still  in  the  early  experimental  stage. 

Probably  in  no  other  field  of  public  education  has 
there  been  a  more  conscious  attempt  to  adapt  the  work 
of  the  school  to  the  practical  requirements  of  specific 
social  conditions  than  in  the  vacation-school  move- 
ment. Here  the  school  has  ignored  its  own  traditions, 
has  surmounted  its  natural  conservativism,  and  has 
sought  to  understand  the  needs  of  an  important  part  of 
the  community  and  to  adapt  itself  to  the  single  purpose 
of  supplying  those  needs. 

The  explanation  of  the  unusual  directness  and  freedom 
of  adaptation  to  social  demands  is  not  hard  to  find.     In 


School  Gardens  and  Playgrounds       195 

the  first  place,  the  fact  that  the  schools  were  to  be  held 
during  vacation  time,  when  recreation  was  presumably  a 
controlling  motive,  suggested  that  the  work  should  be 
difierent  in  character  from  that  of  the  common  school. 
The  influence  of  the  traditional  school  being  thus  neu- 
tralized, the  vacation  school  was  free  to  consider  prima- 
rily the  requirements  of  the  social  groups  from  which 
the  pupils  were  drawn.  In  the  second  place,  the  lead- 
ers in  the  movement  for  vacation  schools  were  persons 
not  directly  engaged  in  school  work,  whose  main  inter- 
est and  sympathy  centred  in  problems  of  social  well- 
being.  Third,  the  opening  of  vacation  schools,  as  has 
already  been  pointed  out,  was  originally  conceived  not 
as  an  educational  movement,  strictl}'  speaking,  at  all, 
but  as  a  means  of  social  betterment.  Even  if  the 
leaders  had  come  from  the  ranks  of  professional  educa- 
tors, therefore,  there  would  have  been  reason  to  expect 
that  the  chief  consideration  would  be  given  to  social 
needs  rather  than  to  educational  traditions. 

8. — Results. 

There  are  two  conspicuous  results  of  the  experiments 
in  vacation  schools  that  have  an  important  relation  not 
only  to  the  future  development  of  this  field  of  work  it- 
self, but  to  the  solution  of  some  of  the  pressing  problems 
of  general  education.  First,  the  commanding  place  given 
to  constructive  activity  suggests  the  relatively  small  use 
that  is  made  in  the  common  schools  of  one  of  the 
strongest  impulses  native  to  children.  It  may  be  that 
this  kind  of  activity  has  been  over-em]ihasized  in  the  va- 
cation schools ;  but  this  very  emphasis  has  developed 


196  School  Management 

many  possibilities  in  such  work  not  previously  realized, 
and  has  thus  opened  the  way  to  a  much  wider  outlet  for 
children's  motor  impulses  than  has  heretofore  been  util- 
ized. The  strong  hold  that  constructive  work  has  upon 
the  interest  of  children  has  been  strikingly  illustrated  ; 
for  though  attendance  upon  the  vacation  schools  is 
purely  voluntary,  the  children  have  been  eager  to  be 
present  and  to  follow  the  work  to  the  end.  The  prog- 
ress made  by  the  children  is  frequently  described  as 
"  remarkable  "  or  "  incredible,"  and,  judging  from  the 
reports  of  teachers  and  supervisors,  the  difficulties  of 
discipline  apparently  do  not  exist  in  any  appreciable 
degree. 

Second,  the  value  and  the  practicability  of  school  ex- 
cursions have  been  illustrated  and  confirmed.  Groups 
of  children  varying  in  numbers  from  twenty  to  two 
thousand  have  been  repeatedly  taken  on  excursions 
without  serious  accident.  The  educational  value  of 
excursions  has  long  been  recognized  and  widely  util- 
ized in  European  countries.  It  is  not  unlikely  that 
in  this  country  the  vacation  schools  will  bring  vividly 
before  teachers  the  valuable  possibilities  of  this  neg- 
lected means  of  instruction.  We  may  say,  then,  that 
the  vacation  schools  so  far  have  not  only  succeeded  amply 
in  their  immediate  purpose,  but  that  they  are  giving 
impulse  in  important  directions  to  the  general  educa- 
tional movement. 


School  Gardens  and  Playgrounds        197 


TOPICAL  REVIEW 

1.  The  school  garden  as  an  ideal  form  of  nature  study. 

2.  What  opportunities  does  the  school  garden  furnish  for  physical 
and  manual  training  ? 

3.  Its  relative  value  in  city  and  country. 

4.  The  advantages  of  directed  play. 

5.  Should  swimming  be  taught  at  public  expense  ? 

6.  How  may  the  vacation  school  supplement  and  strengthen  the 
day-school  ? 

7.  How  may  it  aid  and  elevate  the  home  ? 


CHAPTER  XVI 
THE  SCHOOL  AND  THE  COMMUNITY 

The  school  no  longer  stands  apart  from  other  forms 
of  community  life.  The  schoolmaster  is  no  longer  iso- 
lated. His  interests  and  work  must  be  of  the  broadest 
nature,  and  the  school  must  be  closely  allied  to  every 
form  of  effort  which  is  apj)lied  for  the  enlightenment 
and  betterment  of  the, people. 

The  change  from  the  conception  that  the  school  has 
a  definite  and  restricted  work  to  do  in  training  to  the 
use  of  certain  school  arts  and  in  giving  the  elements  of 
knowledge,  to  the  new  idea  that  the  school  has  social 
functions,  that  it  is  to  be  a  fountain  of  inspiration  to 
all  thinking  and  all  work,  that  it  is  interested  not  only 
in  the  child  daring  his  school  life,  but  in  the  adult  who 
toils  and  makes  sacrifices  that  his  child  may  remain  in 
school,  has  been  as  gradual  as  it  has  been  positive.  It 
would  be  possible  to  explain  how  this  change  has 
come  about,  but  the  object  here  is  to  make  practical 
suggestions  in  vieAV  of  conditions  as  they  are,  rather 
than  to  explain  all  the  causes  which  have  made  the 
present  situation  what  it  is.  It  is  obvious  that  in  this 
country  the  aim  is  to  make  all  people  as  intelligent,  as 
upright,  as  industrious,  and  as  law-abiding  as  possible. 
It  is  manifest  also  that  a  very  large  majority  of  men  and 
women  are  forced  out  of  school  at  an  early  age  into 

198 


The  School  and  the  Community       199 

pursuits  which  are  more  or  less  monotonous,  and  which 
have  in  themselves  very  limited  opportunities  for  de- 
velopment. To  offset  this  discouraging  aspect  of  human 
society  as  it  is  to-day,  we  see  a  variety  of  forces,  educa- 
tive and'  cultural,  growing  up  in  our  communities,  which 
are  capable  of  wielding  a  mighty  influence  for  the  intel- 
lectual and  moral  good  of  the  people  if  given  proper 
leadership.  "We  have,  therefore,  two  great  problems 
touching  the  social  function  of  the  school : 

1.  How  may  the  school  call  to  its  aid,  and  organize 
for  educational  ends,  the  culture  forces  in  the  commu- 
nity? 

2.  How  may  the  school  become  a  social  centre  ex- 
tending its  influence  and  power  to  the  adult  life  of  the 
community,  so  that  education  becomes  a  life  process, 
and  the  work  of  levelling  up,  so  essential  to  the  great- 
ness of  a  republic,  is  in  full  and  continuous  operation? 

In  this  chapter  let  us  consider  what  the  school, 
through  its  oflScers,  teachers,  and  active  coworkers, 
may  do  in  developing  and  organizing  as  many  agencies 
as  possible  of  an  educational  sort,  so  that  latent  and  un- 
used talents  are  brought  into  service,  so  that  men  and 
women  of  education  and  leisure  may  co-operate,  and 
persons  of  wealth  may  see  opportunities  for  an  unselfish 
use  of  their  money;  and  finally  that  there  may  be  in  the 
community  a  unified  and  altruistic  public  spirit  which 
is  the  finest  product  of  our  modern  civilization. 

The  question  arises  at  once.  What  are  the  educational 
resources  which  may  be  summoned  to  the  aid  of  the 
school?  For  convenience  they  may  be  di^dded  into 
three  classes:  1.  Churches,  homes,  and  libraries.  2. 
Newspapers,  magazines,  museums,  government,  indus- 


200  School  Management 

try,  and  the  drama.  3.  Those  latent  and  unseen  sensi- 
bilities and  aptitudes  of  the  people  which  make  them 
responsive  and  capable  of  being  quickened  into  new 
life.  But  someone  will  say :  "My  school  is  in  a  remotB 
village,  or  is  solitary  upon  a  New  England  hill,  or  a 
Western  prairie — what  can  be  done,  then,  in  the  way  of 
enlisting  culture  forces  ?  "  The  reply  is  that  the  princi- 
ple back  of  the  propositions  is  capable  of  universal  appli- 
cation. There  are  few  schools  in  our  country  that  can- 
not relate  themselves  to  nearly  all  of  these  culture 
elements,  even  though  they  are  but  slightly  developed. 
The  undertaking  is  difficult,  but  is  all  the  more  interest- 
ing and  professional  on  that  account.  It  is  just  as  im- 
portant that  the  rural  school  should  seek  co-ordination 
with  other  forces  as  that  the  city  school  should  do  it, 
and  throughout  this  whole  discussion  we  must  keep  this 
thought  in  mind. 

Let  us  see  now  what  definite,  practical  conclusions 
can  be  reached. 

1. — The  School  and  the  Church. 

Let  it  be  assumed  at  the  outset  that  the  church  is  en- 
gaged in  educative  work.  Religion  and  morality  should 
go  hand  in  hand.  Whatever  character  is  found  in  the 
church  is  the  joint  product  of  the  home,  the  school,  and 
the  community  life.  The  church  adds  the  higher 
thought,  teaches  the  blessedness  of  faith  and  hope,  and 
gives  an  ideal  significance  to  human  progress  and  at- 
tainment. Sectarian  religion  has  little  to  do  with  the 
more  vital  functions  of  the  church's  mission,  so  it  is  easy 
for  the  chui'ch  and  school  to  combine  in  spirit  and  pur- 


The  School  and  the  Community         201 

pose  without  infringing  upon  any  particular  belief.  All 
essential  truth  belongs  as  much  to  the  school  as  it  does 
to  the  church.  Clergymen  and  schoolmasters  should 
often  consult  together  concerning  the  moral  welfare  of 
the  young,  and  the  best  means  of  promoting  righteous- 
ness. Such  conferences  will  do  much  to  dispel  bigotry 
and  to  awaken  a  common  consciousness  of  common 
needs.  The  results  of  this  co-operation  will  be  reflect- 
ed in  the  school,  in  the  pulpit,  and  in  the  homes  of  the 
community,  and  will  open  the  way  for  a  more  tolerant, 
generous,  and  humane  feeling  among  the  people. 

The  fact  that  the  modern  church  has  become  highly 
differentiated  along  educational  lines,  and  is  employing 
the  methods  of  the  class-room  and  the  social  settle- 
ment, shows  that  there  is  current  a  changed  conception 
of  pure  and  undefiled  religion.  It  certainly  cannot  be 
difficult  for  the  school  and  the  church  to  come  into  alli- 
ance at  the  present  time.  If  the  schoolmaster  or  the 
clergyman  is  arrogant,  and  harbors  the  thought  that  his 
cloth  can  justly  claim  a  monopoly  in  any  field,  there  is 
evidence  that  he  is  belated  in  his  progress,  and  is  out  of 
harmony  with  the  times.  Teachers  need  to  be  much  in 
the  church,  and  preachers  need  to  be  in  the  schools;  thus 
the  one  will  helpfully  react  upon  the  other,  and  many 
parallel  lines  of  work  will  be  found. 

2. —  The  School  and  the  Home. 

We  have  many  times  referred  to  the  relations  of 
teachers  and  parents.  They  are  co-ordinate  and  com- 
plementary. The  teacher  should  know  the  parents  of 
his  children,  sympathize  with  them  in  their  ambitions, 


202  School  Management 

and  learn  from  them  many  things  that  will  help  him 
in  the  school.  As  far  as  possible,  home  life  and  school 
life  should  be  adjusted  to  each  other,  with  an  entire 
absence  of  irritation  or  antagonism  of  any  sort.  The 
teacher  should  invariably  show  respect  for  the  par- 
ent, and  the  parent  for  the  teacher  ;  thus  the  child  may 
be  expected  to  have  increased  confidence  in  both.  Par- 
ents should  be  interested  in  what  children  are  doing  in 
school.  This  implies  that  the  school  should  be  freely 
open  to  parents.  The  teachers,  on  the  other  hand, 
should  be  interested  in  what  the  children  are  doing  in 
their  homes,  and  this  means  that  the  homes  should  be 
wide  open  to  the  teachers.  Teachers  should  invite  sug- 
gestions from  the  parents.  If  any  work  is  to  be  under- 
taken in  the  way  of  making  schools  more  hygienic  and 
attractive,  parents  should  be  asked  to  serve  on  commit- 
tees which  attempt  this  work.  In  the  State  of  Maine  an 
interesting  movement  has  been  carried  on  for  several 
years  under  the  general  supervision  of  Mr.  W.  W.  Stet- 
son, Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction.  School  im- 
provement leagues  have  been  formed,  whose  purpose 
has  been  :  1.  To  improve  school  grounds  and  buildings. 
2.  To  furnish  suitable  reading  matter  for  pupils  and 
people.  3.  To  provide  works  of  art  for  school-rooms. 
There  are  three  kinds  of  leagues,  designated  as  local, 
town,  and  State  leagues.  The  membership  in  these 
leagues  has  included  teachers,  pupils,  and  citizens.  This 
suggests  the  wisdom  of  having  parents  and  teachers 
work  together  for  every  good  cause.  Many  wholesome 
features  of  these  improvement  leagues  are  too  evident 
to  need  emphasis,  and  the  results  as  reported  are  most 
gratifying.     It  has  been  a  matter  of  general  observation 


The  School  and  the  Covununity         203 

that  where  the  home  and  the  school  are  in  harmony  and 
work  together  there  are  happy  results,  not  merely  in 
scholarship,  but  in  those  moral  and  social  qualities 
which  make  life  worth  living. 

It  is  in  place  to  urge  here  the  value  of  public  days  or 
hours  when  the  entire  school  is  thrown  open,  and 
parents  and  citizens  are  invited  to  be  the  guests  of 
teachers  and  pupils.  But  the  pleasure  and  beauty  of 
these  school  receptions  are  often  marred  by  an  almost 
vicious  tendency  to  make  the  exercises  too  formal  and 
too  much  like  a  show.  To  give  the  best  impression 
and  accomplish  the  most  good  the  school  should  be  in  its 
normal  condition,  and  go  on  with  its  regular  order  of  ex- 
ercises, the  only  difference  being  that  the  several  recita- 
tions are  shortened  in  order  that  something  of  every 
kind  of  school  work  may  be  shown.  This  prompt  and 
rapid  succession  of  reading,  spelling,  arithmetic,  geog- 
raphy, history,  physical  exercises,  singing,  and  memory 
selections  is  vastly  more  entertaining  and  valuable  to 
parents  than  an  artificial  j^rogramme  of  declamations  and 
songs,  during  which  the  teacher  sits  in  the  corner,  and 
the  people  present  get  no  adequate  notion  of  what  the 
school  is  doing  from  day  to  day.  Kindred  to  the  ''pub- 
lic day  "  is  the  school  exhibit,  which  may  be  held  at  the 
same  time  or  not,  as  circumstances  determine.  Here, 
also,  should  be  seen  the  natural,  proper,  and  legitimate 
work  of  the  school.  It  is  more  important  that  it  should 
be  an  honest  and  typical  representation  than  that  it 
should  be  vast  in  its  extent,  or  made  up  of  startling  and 
imusual  features.  Both  public  days  and  exhibits  do 
more  than  any  other  means  to  acquaint  the  community 
with  the  aims  and  life  of   the  school.     They  tend  to 


204  School  Management 

arouse  the  pride  and  loyalty  of  the  citizens,  and  often 
lead  to  more  generous  appropriations  for  school  ex- 
penses. The  writer  knows  of  several  instances  where 
men  of  wealth  were  so  impressed  with  Avhat  they  saw 
in  the  schools  that  they  made  generous  contributions 
for  books,  works  of  art,  and  other  valuable  aids.  School 
exhibits  are  also  educative,  as  they  enlist  the  pupils  in 
many  activities  which  develop  responsibility  and  execu- 
tive power. 

3. —  The  ScJiool  and  the  Library. 

If  there  is  a  public  library  the  principals  and  teachers 
will  naturally  desire  the  fullest  information  as  to  what  it 
offers,  and  in  what  way  its  resources  can  be  brought  into 
service  as  an  adjunct  to  the  school.  There  is  the  possi- 
bility of  having  one  or  more  reading-rooms  open  to  pupils 
of  different  grades,  with  the  most  desirable  books  for  ref- 
erence and  reading,  and  supervised  by  a  school  librarian, 
who  is  responsible  not  only  for  the  way  in  which  the  books 
are  used,  but  also  for  the  conduct  of  the  pupils.  There  is 
also  the  plan  of  having  a  large  number  of  books  bearing 
upon  any  given  subject  delivered  at  the  school  upon 
the  order  of  the  teacher,  and  kept  in  use  until  a  new 
supply  is  required.  The  privilege  afforded  to  teachers 
by  most  libraries  of  taking  an  entire  class  directly  to 
the  shelves,  so  that  the  members  become  familiar  with 
the  books  available  on  that  subject,  and  may  draw  them 
out  for  individual  use,  is  invaluable.  Many  large  city 
libraries  have  not  only  established  branches  in  the 
schools,  but  have  organized  a  system  of  distribution  and 
of  supplementary  reading.     Local  conditions  vary  great- 


The  School  and  the  Community        205 

ly,  and  it  is  important  that  teachers  become  strongly 
imbued  with  the  value  of  the  library  in  whatever  form  it 
may  exist,  and  become  pioneers  if  necessary  in  working 
out  devices  which  are  most  feasible. 

In  case  there  is  no  town  library,  the  school  should 
have  one,  and  however  small  and  humble  its  be- 
ginnings, it  will  be  sure  to  grow.  Pupils  and  parents 
will  make  contributions,  a  school  concert  or  public  lect- 
ure will  be  arranged,  and  its  proceeds  devoted  to  the 
library.  Soon  the  school  will  have  a  nucleus  of  good 
books  which  will  be  a  fountain  of  life  and  inspiration 
to  the  older  pupils.  The  ideal  class-room  library  would 
be  filled  with  books  bearing  directly  upon  the  subject- 
matter  of  the  grade,  and  placed  upon  open  shelves 
within  easy  reach  of  the  pupils,  who  would  have  per- 
mission to  take  out  volumes  any  time  when  they  could 
make  good  use  of  them.  Pupils  who  have  this  daily 
and  hourly  opportunity  for  study  and  research  are  in 
a  different  class  from  those  who  are  restricted  to  the 
required  text-books. 

It  is  clear  that  all  of  these  methods  of  bringing  young 
people  into  contact  with  good  books,  and  teaching  them 
how  to  use  them,  are  intended  not  merely  to  serve  the 
young  during  their  school  life,  but  to  establish  those 
habits  of  reading  and  that  taste  for  good  literature 
which  last  for  a  lifetime,  and  which  enable  working 
people  to  rise  above  drudgery,  and  find  solace  and 
inspiration.  The  battle  now  going  on  for  shorter 
hours  and  higher  wages  points  to  a  larger  need  for 
good  reading. 


206  School  Management 


4. — The  School  and  the  Museum. 

Let  us  meet  any  objection  that  the  museum  is  only  for 
the  city  by  the  statement  that  in  every  community  there 
are  objects  of  natural  and  historic  interest,  which  if 
brought  together  would  be  of  immense  interest  to  both 
young  and  old.  It  is  an  age  of  travel,  and  every  traveller 
brings  back  with  him  articles  significant  of  the  products, 
industries,  and  customs  of  the  people  he  has  visited.  An 
instance  is  recalled,  when  in  a  country  village,  a  few 
years  ago,  some  enterprising  person  suggested  the  idea 
of  a  temporary  museum,  to  which  all  the  citizens  should 
be  invited  to  contribute  as  a  means  of  raising  money  for 
a  local  charity.  The  results  were  surj^rising.  What  was 
brought  together  presented  vivid  pictures  of  local  his- 
tory long  forgotten,  and  methods  of  domestic  life  and 
husbandry  of  which  the  younger  generation  knew  noth- 
ing. Had  the  village  possessed  some  public  building  in 
which  a  room  could  be  devoted  to  a  permanent  loan 
collection,  an  historical  society  could  have  been  organ- 
ized to  take  charge  of  it,  and  a  desirable  educational 
means  Avould  have  been  established.  Let  it,  then,  be 
assumed  that  in  every  community  there  ought  to  be  n 
growing  collection  to  which  people  interested  in  doing 
good  might  make  contributions.  There  is  no  end  of 
work  which  classes  from  the  schools  can  do  in  well-or- 
ganized museums.  Classes  in  botany  find  collections  of 
woods,  fibres,  cereals ;  those  in  zoology  have  the  oppor- 
tunity of  examining  shells,  birds,  and  animals,  arranged 
to  show  the  orders  and  families ;  so  with  classes  in  eth- 
nology,  geology,  and   history.     Teachers   should    first 


The  School  and  the  Community        207 

have  a  somewhat  familiar  acquaintance  with  the  re- 
sources of  the  museum,  and  should  closely  connect  their 
teaching  with  what  can  be  actually  seen  and  examined. 
The  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  in  New 
York,  and  the  Field  Columbian  Museum,  in  Chicago, 
are  good  examples  of  what  may  be  done  for  the  educa- 
tion of  the  people,  either  by  the  municipality  or  by 
public-spirited  donors. 

If  nothing  better  offers  itself,  the  school  may  organize 
a  small  museum  of  its  own.  By  entering  into  corre- 
spondence with  other  schools  where  climate  and  pro- 
ductions differ,  an  interesting  collection  may  be  made 
by  gradual  exchange.  The  necessary  correspondence, 
labelling,  and  installing  of  exhibits  may  be  largely  car- 
ried on  by  pupils. 

5. — The  School  and  the  Neivspaper. 

There  has  been  a  difference  of  opinion  about  the  news- 
paper and  its  educative  province.  There  can  be  no 
doubt,  however,  that  the  school  needs  the  support  of  the 
public  press,  for  no  influence  is  more  potent  where  intel- 
ligence and  conscience  are  supreme.  If  editors  and  news- 
paper men  can  be  enlisted  in  the  service  of  the  schools 
there  will  be  found  no  more  valuable  allies  than  they. 
More  and  more  the  newspaper  in  its  tone,  spirit,  and 
matter  will  be  such  as  to  make  it  admissible  to  the  school- 
room. No  history  is  more  important  than  present  history. 
No  world  movements  are  greater  or  more  full  of  instruc- 
tion than  those  of  the  present  time.  The  good  newspaper 
reflects  the  world's  life  and  activity  in  its  manifold  forms, 
and  if  read  along  with  other  text-books  adds  immense 


208  School  Management 

interest  and  makes  teaching  real.  The  fact  that  some 
newspapers  are  bad  and  unfit  to  be  thus  used  only 
argues  that  the  young  should  be  made  acquainted  with 
the  best  papers  and  should  be  taught  to  use  them  in 
the  right  way. 

6. — The  School  and  Indvstry. 

There  has  been  a  decided  awakening  in  this  direction 
of  late.  It  is  now  thought  as  proper  to  take  a  class  to  a 
saw-mill,  a  stone  quarry,  a  cotton  factory,  or  a  foundry  as 
to  a  laboratory  or  a  recitation-room.  The  industries  of 
the  neighborhood  become  standards  by  which  the  world's 
work,  of  various  sorts  is  estimated  and  judged.  Every 
community  has  its  peculiar  economic  problems  gi'owing 
out  of  its  natural  resources,  means  of  transportation, 
climate,  soil,  etc.,  which  make  it  possible  to  carry  on  an 
intensive  and  typical  line  of  study.  Professor  E.  P. 
Halleck  gives  a  concrete  instance  of  the  way  in  which 
social  economic  power  may  be  developed  by  the  study 
of  the  more  common  industries. 

"A  boy  was  asked  how  many  horseshoe  nails  a  black- 
smith would  need  in  the  course  of  a  year.  The  only  de- 
tails furnished  were  that  this  blacksmith  was  the  only 
one  in  a  little  town  of  three  hundred,  and  that  he  drew 
his  custom  from  that  and  from  an  agricultural  district 
of  four  square  miles.  The  boy  took  an  imaginary  town 
and  determined  the  probable  occupation  of  every  one  of 
the  inhabitants.  Next  he  plotted  on  paper  the  four 
square  miles,  fixing  the  woods,  hills,  and  streams,  the 
farm  acreage,  the  kind  of  crops  raised,  the  number  of 
horses  needed,     Then  he  talked  with  blacksmiths,  and 


The  School  and  the  Community        209 

found  that  they  were  human.  He  blew  the  bellows, 
listened  to  the  meny  anvil  chorus,  stroked  the  noses 
of  the  horses,  and  found  that  they  liked  sympathy.  He 
was  a  surprised  boy  to  learn  that  if  he  worked  up  his 
own  arithmetical  problems,  they  had  something  to  do 
with  real  practical  human  life."  * 

The  late  Colonel  Parker  was  a  strong  advocate  of  the 
same  idea,  and  believed  not  only  that  agriculture  should 
be  brought  into  the  schools  of  both  city  and  country, 
but  that  the  farmer  and  teacher  should  work  together. 
He  said : 

"  The  tremendous  advantage  of  a  rational  course  of 
work  in  country  schools  is  that  it  would  make  a  strong, 
binding  union  of  the  home  and  the  school,  the  farm 
methods  and  the  school  methods.  It  would  bring  the 
farm  into  the  school,  and  project  the  school  into  the 
farm.  It  would  give  parent  and  teacher  one  motive,  in 
the  carrying  out  of  which  both  could  heartily  join. 
The  parent  would  appreciate  and  judge  fairly  the  work 
of  the  school,  the  teacher  would  honor,  dignify,  and  ele- 
vate the  work  of  the  farm.  Farmer  and  housewife 
would  be  ready  to  discuss  the  methods  of  the  farm  and 
liousekeeping  in  the  school.  Children,  parents,  and 
teacher  could  meet  at  stated  periods  and  hold  discus- 
sions in  the  direction  of  their  highest  interests.  One  of 
the  best  meetings  I  ever  attended  was  a  imion  of  grang- 
ers and  teachers  in  Oceana  County,  Michigan.  One  hour 
was  devoted  to  a  discussion  of  how  to  raise  potatoes, 
and  the  next  was  given  to  the  education  of  children."  f 

*  Proceedings  of  the  National  Education  Association,  1901. 
t  "The  Farm  as  a  Centre  of  Interest."     Keport  of  Committee  of 
Twelve,  1895. 


210  •  School  Management 

Dr.  David  Eiigeue  Smith,  of  the  Teachers  College, 
New  York  City,  has  shown  how  arithmetic,  which  has 
been  the  most  unsocial  and  unrelated  of  all  subjects,  may 
be  used  to  arouse  the  child's  interest  in  the  quantitative 
side  of  practical  life.  His  thought  as  stated  is  as  follows : 

"  The  problems  of  present  arithmetic  might  well  be 
of  two  kinds :  First,  those  dealing  with  the  quantitative 
side  of  matters  of  local  interest,  as  to  the  cost  of  blast- 
ing rock  for  a  cellar  in  New  York  City,  the  quantity 
and  cost  of  a  mile  of  asphalt  pavement  in  Buffalo,  the 
quantity  of  water  necessary  for  irrigating  for  a  season  an 
acre  of  laud  in  Colorado,  and  the  cost  and  the  quantity  of 
materials  necessary  for  fattening  a  herd  of  twenty-five 
cattle  on  an  Ohio  farm  ;  second,  those  dealing  with  the 
quantitative  side  of  matters  of  general  interest,  as  the 
Pennsylvania  Railroad  system,  an  ocean  steamship,  the 
comparative  cost  of  the  transportation  of  ore  from  Lake 
Superior  to  Pittsburg  by  rail  and  by  water,  the  amount 
of  freight  carried  on  the  Mississippi  compared  with  that 
carried  by  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad  which  parallels 
it,  a  great  department  store,  the  labor  and  money  saved 
by  the  cotton-gin  and  by  other  inventions  concerning 
cotton  productions,  the  sugar-cane  and  beet-sugar  in- 
dustries compared,  and  dairying  and  ranching.  Since 
nearly  all  the  arithmetical  processes  are  mastered  by  the 
end  of  the  fifth  year  at  school,  the  last  three  years  of 
mathematics  in  the  grades  might  be  spent  almost  en- 
tirely in  the  study  of  important  industries  and  other 
matters  on  the  quantitative  side,  as  mining,  banking, 
investments,  manufacture  of  clothing,  government  rev- 
enue, commission  business,  gardening  and  farming,  the 
cost  of  paving,  of  water,  and  of  gas  in  different  cities, 


T'he  School  and  the  Covimnnity        211 

the  comparative  cost  of  gas  and  electric  light,  compari- 
son of  the  steel  industry  in  this  country  and  in  Eng- 
land, or  the  comparison  of  the  growth  of  certain  cities 
here  and  abroad."  * 


7. — The  School  aiid  Government. 

This  part  of  the  subject  can  be  disposed  of  quickly. 
The  means  by  which  we  are  governed  are  ever  in  opera- 
tion, and  the  young  should  be  taught  to  follow  with  in- 
terest all  kinds  of  public  work  and  service  which  is  done 
by  State,  count}',  town,  or  city.  The  town  meeting,  court 
of  common  council,  the  work  performed  by  the  depart- 
ment of  roads,  the  police,  lights,  sanitation,  and  justice 
should  receive  enough  attention  to  make  the  child 
familiar  with  their  workings  and  fully  conscious  of  his 
relationship  to  them. 

Wholesome  respect  for  the  authority  of  the  state  is  in 
itself  an  educative  influence.  Sound  patriotism  is  based 
upon  it,  and  the  words  "our  country"  mean  little  with- 
out an  appreciation  of  that  system  of  law  and  order 
which  ensures  safety,  security,  and  peace  to  the  citizen. 

It  is  seen  that  the  school  is  planted  in  the  midst  of 
other  strong  educative  forces.  By  reason  of  its  intrinsic 
nature  and  scope  it  should  be  a  leader  and  a  sort  of 
unifying  influence  in  the  community.  As  it  allies  itself 
to  the  church,  the  library,  the  museum,  and  other  means 
of  culture  it  multiplies  its  own  strength,  and  establishes 
a  fraternit}'  of  moral  influences  which  gives  character 
and  tone  to  the  entire  neighborhood. 

♦  Teachers  College  Record^  March,  1903. 


212  School  Management 


TOPICAL   REVIEW 

1.  Why  should  the  school  combine  with  other  forces? 

2.  Such  combinations  everywhere  possible. 

3.  New  activities  of  the  church  and  their  significance. 

4.  How  home  and  school  may  work  together. 

5.  Means  of  interesting  parents  and  citizens. 

6.  The  benefits  and  dangers  of  the  reading  habit. 

7.  The  uses  of  the  newspaper  in  the  school-room. 

8.  Educative  lessons  from  industries. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

THE   SCHOOL  AS  A  SOCIAL  CENTRE 

Dr.  Dewey  *  names  four  specific  elements  wbicli  bear 
uj^on  the  school  as  a  social  centre. 

1.  The  efiiciency  and  ease  Avith  which  people  are 
brought  together  through  transportation,  cheap  litera- 
ture, aud  centralized  industry. 

2.  The  weakening  of  the  bonds  of  social  discipline 
and  control  as  represented  by  the  home,  the  church, 
custom,  and  tradition. 

3.  Education  is  much  more  closely  identified  with 
life.  All  people  are  at  school  because  all  science  and 
all  industry  are  closely  connected,  and  what  we  call 
practical  life  is  replete  with  lessons  and  experiences 
which  tend  to  educate. 

4.  Change  and  progress  are  so  rapid  that  education 
for  all  who  intend  to  be  successful  must  be  continuous. 

Doubtless  the  most  fruitful  suggestions  in  regard  to 
the  propriety  of  opening  school-houses,  and  making 
them  meeting-places  for  the  people,  were  prompted  by 
the  successful  work  of  social  settlements.  This  form  of 
work,  which  started  as  a  philanthropy,  has  taken  on 
many  educative  phases,  until  the  best  organized  social 
settlements   are   quasi-schools   for   the   people.     Tliey 

*  "The  School  as  a  Social  Centre."  Proceedings  of  the  Nutioual 
Education  Asaociation,  11)02,  page  873. 

213 


214  School  Management 

teach  those  arts  which  minister  to  household  comfort 
and  thrift,  and  arouse  an  interest  in  good  books  and 
pictures.  Thus  the  homes  are  reached,  and  life  is  made 
more  tolerable  for  those  who  are  otherwise  miserable 
and  "wretched. 

Moreover,  the  element  of  recreation  and  entertain- 
ment has  been  prominent  in  all  settlement  work,  so  that 
there  has  been  something  to  enjoy,  and  the  days  of  hard 
toil  have  been  brightened  by  music,  dramatic  entertain- 
ments, and  interesting  lectures.  Games  and  sports  have 
also  been  provided.  Thus  social  settlements  have  be- 
come centres  of  life  and  light  in  the  neighborhood,  and 
in  a  simple,  natural,  and  constructive  way  homes  have 
been  improved  and  a  higher  order  of  neighborly  inter- 
course has  been  promoted. 

The  public  school  is  not  a  social  settlement,  and  can 
never  fulfil  the  functions  of  one.  It  would  not  be  wise 
for  school  ofl&cials  and  teachers  to  press  this  idea  so  far 
as  to  divert  school  funds  from  their  legitimate  purpose, 
or  to  amplify  school  expenses  on  the  social  side  to  such 
an  extent  as  to  create  a  popular  reaction  in  the  minds 
of  heavy  taxpayers. 

The  Speyer  School  of  the  Teachers  College,  New  York, 
now  housed  in  a  new  five-story  building,  is  the  first  at- 
tempt to  illustrate  how  the  purposes  of  the  school  and 
the  social  settlement  can  be  combined.  This  building 
contains  two  reading-rooms,  one  for  children  and  one 
for  adults,  on  either  side  of  the  main  entrance.  These 
are  open  day  and  evening,  and  are  under  the  super- 
vision of  a  coiupetent  person,  who  assists  the  readers  in 
finding  such  books  and  magazines  as  may  be  most  help- 
ful to  them. 


The  School  as  a  Social  Centre         215 

On  the  first  floor  in  the  rear  is  a  large  kindergarten 
room,  which  not  only  receives  the  young  children  of  the 
neighborhood  during  the  day,  but  serves  as  a  meeting- 
place  for  the  Mothers'  Club,  which  is  a  popular  and 
useful  feature.  The  basement  floor  and  the  rear  yard 
provide  a  spacious  gymnasium,  which  is  open  at  all 
hours  of  the  day  and  evening  for  school-children,  for 
young  women,  and  young  men  respectively.  On  the 
same  floor  are  baths  and  dressing-rooms.  Beside  the 
class-rooms,  which  occupy  two  floors,  there  are  labora- 
tories for  wood- working,  domestic  art  and  science,  which 
are  also  in  constant  use.  On  the  fifth  floor  is  a  suite 
of  apartments  and  additional  rooms  for  the  principal 
and  resident  workers.  The  roof  provides  space  for 
playground  and  garden. 

This  school,  if  properly  managed,  will  illustrate  both 
what  can  be  done  and  what  cannot  be  done  in  a  public 
school.  It  will  be  found  that  the  expenses  for  adminis- 
tration and  instruction  will  be  large  if  efficient  work  is 
accomplished.  The  practical  question  is,  under  what 
circumstances  and  in  what  way  can  the  public  schools 
be  kept  open  and  be  made  centres  of  social  and  intellect- 
ual culture. 

1. — Uniform  Practice  not  Desirable. 

Many  experiments  will  be  needed  to  work  out  this 
problem.  Inasmuch  as  conditions  vary  in  diflerent  com- 
munities, and  in  different  portions  of  the  same  commu- 
nity, experiments  will  naturally  be  tried  along  quite  dif- 
ferent lines.  In  well-to-do  sections,  where  the  home  life 
is  ideal,  or  nearly   so,  it  would  bo   absurd  to  open  the 


216  School  Management 

school-Louses  for  adults,  except  in  the  case  of  parents' 
meetings  and  education  societies,  to  which  reference 
■will  be  made  later.  There  should  be,  however,  evening 
classes  for  young  men  and  young  women  whose  school 
training  has  been  limited  or  who  need  special  instruc- 
tion for  the  sake  of  their  vocation. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  the  slum  sections  of  our  cities 
the  settlement  idea  ought  to  be  quite  fully  developed  in 
the  school.  Special  arrangements  should  be  made  for 
janitor  service,  directors,  and  teachers  who  would  be 
present  on  certain  evenings  of  the  week,  and  possibly  a 
certain  portion  of  Sunday,  for  the  supervision  of  classes 
and  clubs,  and  the  physical,  moral,  intellectual,  and  in- 
dustrial activities  which  are  most  needed.  Here  is  cer- 
tainly a  rich  opportunity  for  levelling  up  people  by 
means  of  a  more  systematic  and  complete  use  of  the 
school  plant. 

Between  these  extremes  of  social  condition,  the  sev- 
eral school  neighborhoods  of  town  or  city  will  present 
various  conditions  and  needs  requiring  wise  adaptation 
and  adjustment. 

2. — The  Principle  of  ScJiool  Extension. 

The  idea  underlying  all  these  new  forms  of  educa- 
tional work  is  so  sound  and  vital  that  it  is  likely  to 
make  headway  rapidly.  It  is  the  office  of  educators  to 
work  out  the  plan  tentatively,  and  to  keep  the  public  so 
well  informed  as  to  its  motives  and  methods  that  there 
may  be  no  set-back.  The  idea  that  education  is  a  life 
process,  and  must  therefore  be  continuous,  commends 
itself  to  every  open-minded  person,  and  there  is  abroad 


The  School  as  a  Social  Centre         217 

to-day  enough  of  altruism,  sentiment,  and  feeling  to  sus- 
tain scliool  authorities  in  all  reasonable  attempts  to 
make  school  property  and  equipment  more  serviceable 
to  the  people  at  large. 


3. — Free  Lectures. 

New  York  City  has  given  a  fine  object-lesson  to  the 
world  of  the  value  of  the  popular  lecture  as  a  form  of 
school  extension.  There  are  in  every  community  men 
and  women  who  have  something  of  interest  to  commu- 
nicate. Professional  men,  manufacturers,  journalists, 
artists,  and  travellers  are  glad  to  prepare  one  or  more 
lectures  and  repeat  them  at  different  centres  without 
compensation.  They  only  need  to  be  asked  and  to  be 
properly  impressed  with  the  value  of  the  seiTice  they 
are  rendering.  There  is  an  enormous  amount  of  talent 
going  to  waste,  that  might  be  used  in  this  way.  As  far 
as  possible  these  lectures  should  be  given  in  the  school- 
houses.  They  should  be  of  a  popular  character,  they 
should  be  opened  to  adults  as  well  as  to  all  the  older 
children  of  the  schools.  In  some  cases  they  may  be 
correlated  with  the  studies  of  the  older  classes.  The 
work  of  organizing  the  lectures,  advertising,  etc.,  could  be 
undertaken  by  volunteer  committees,  aided  and  directed 
by  the  teachers.  In  this  way  the  sole  expense  would 
be  for  the  lighting  of  the  school-houses  and  advertising. 
No  school-board  would  hesitate  to  give  this  amount 
of  financial  support.  It  is  better  to  inaugurate  the  plan 
of  opening  the  school-houses  to  the  people  by  means  of 
lectures,  concerts,  and  evening  classes,  and  let  other 
more  strictly  social  and  recreative  features  make  head- 


218  School  Management 

way  gradually  accordiug  as  public  sentiment  is  ready 
to  approve  and  sustain  them. 

4.  — Playgrounds. 

The  proposition  to  open  playgi'ounds  at  proper  hours, 
not  only  for  the  use  of  pupils,  but  for  other  young  people 
of  the  neighborhood,  is  only  reasonable  and  just,  and  is 
bound  to  be  universally  accepted.  In  a  former  chapter 
we  have  shown  how  school-committees  and  city  govern- 
ments may  exercise  wise  foresight  in  anticipating  the 
future  growth  of  the  city  by  securing  ample  tracts  of 
land  for  school- sites  and  playgrounds. 

6. — Parents'  Associations. 

Another  legitimate  form  of  community  organization 
which  naturally  requires  the  use  of  the  school-house  is 
the  parents'  association.  By  this  we  mean  something 
more  than  the  sporadic  mothers'  meeting  or  parents' 
meeting,  which  simply  furnishes  the  opportunity  for 
the  kindergartner,  the  teacher,  or  the  principal  to  in- 
struct parents  concerning  the  ideals  and  methods  of  the 
school  and  through  a  better  acquaintance  to  secui'e  co- 
operation. 

The  parents'  association  in  its  best  form  has  a  sim- 
ple organization  and  is  managed  by  committees,  whose 
membership  contains  both  teachers  and  parents.  Reg- 
ular meetings  are  held  when  educational  questions  are 
discussed.  In  these  discussions  there  should  be  the 
fullest  opportunity  for  opinions  and  even  criticism 
upon  existing  methods.  Nothing  is  better  than  frank 
statement,  for  it  often  happens  that  misapprehensions 


The  School  as  a  Social  Centre        219 

can  be  removed  and  parents  who  have  been  sceptical 
can  be  made  enthusiastic  supporters  of  the  new  educa- 
tion. 

Occasionally  the  children  should  be  permitted  to 
come  with  their  parents,  and  should  render  some  pro- 
gramme, literary  or  musical,  which  they  themselves  have 
arranged.  The  social  hour  which  concludes  such  an 
evening,  when  parents,  children,  and  teachers  mix  to- 
gether in  a  free  and  friendly  manner,  is  its  rarest 
feature. 

6. — Education  Societies. 

This  type  of  organization  distinctly  favors  the  idea 
of  the  school  as  a  centre  of  social  and  intellectual  effort. 
It  is  broader  than  the  ordinary  parents'  association,  as 
it  assumes  that  education  is  the  great  fundamental  inter- 
est of  mankind  and  that  all  citizens  may  be  brought 
into  some  kind  of  co-operation  for  the  sake  of  elevating 
community  life.  There  might  be  successful  education 
societies  in  every  town  and  city  in  the  country,  pro- 
vided educators  had  faith  in  the  outcome  and  courage 
to  embark  in  such  an  enterprise.  The  writer  does  not 
know  of  a  single  instance  of  failure,  except  where  the 
school  officers  and  teachers  who  should  have  been  most 
earnest  and  energetic  have  been  conspicuous  for  their 
timidity  and  apathy.  It  would  seem  unwise  to  ask  a 
community  to  lay  an  additional  tax  for  the  carrj^ing  on 
of  educational  and  social  work  out  of  school  hours  when 
educational  sentiment  is  at  such  a  low  ebb  that  there  is 
neither  cohesion  nor  co-operation.  It  is  recalled  that 
in  one  or  two  cases  where  attempts  have  been  made  to 


220  Scliool  Management 

organize  an  education  society,  the  representatives  of 
the  schools  were  frightened  and  helped  to  kill  the  proj- 
ect because  of  an  evident  tendency  manifested  at  the 
initial  meeting  to  criticise  existing  methods. 

A  little  effort  and  tact  would  have  led  the  society 
into  such  rich  and  promising  fields  of  influence  and 
work  that  there  would  have  been  little  time  or  disposi- 
tion to  interfere  with  details.  Experience  in  the  forma- 
tion of  education  societies  has  taught  several  things. 

1.  The  ideals  of  general  education  in  their  broader 
sense  are  so  commanding  that  the  best  men  and  women 
may  be  enlisted  and  leadership  may  to  a  great  degree 
be  transferred  fi'om  the  school  to  persons  of  social 
and  intelligent  prominence.  Educators  may  suggest, 
advise,  and  work,  but  there  are  others  who  if  given 
prominent  positions  in  the  society  can  make  it  most 
effective  for  good. 

2.  The  society  should  be  democratic,  the  annual  fees 
very  moderate,  and  the  regular  meetings  should  not  be 
so  frequent  as  to  impose  heavy  burdens.  Four  or  five 
meetings  each  year  have  been  found  sufficient  to  give 
character  and  strength  to  the  work. 

3.  There  should  be  selected  for  each  regular  meeting 
some  broad,  fruitful  subject  which  directs  attention  not 
so  much  to  the  school,  its  defects  and  excellences,  as  to 
those  phases  of  education  outside,  some  of  which  we 
have  discussed  in  the  preceding  chapter. 

A  society  recently  formed  in  New  York  City,  called 
"  The  Bound  Table,"  has  announced  the  following  as 
some  of  the  subjects  worth  discussing  in  the  near 
future  :  "  Ethical  Life  in  School  and  College,"  "  The 
Proper  End  of  Education  in  a  Democracy,"  "  Ai*t  as  an 


The  School  as  a  Social  Centre         221 

Educational  Influence  and  Discipline,"  "  The  Relation 
of  Formal  Education  to  Success  in  Life,"  "What  May 
the  School  Expect  from  the  Home,"  "  The  Old-fash- 
ioned Parent  and  the  New-fashioned  Education," 
"  Education  According  to  Social  Grade  and  Expecta- 
tion," "  The  Use  and  Abuse  of  Psychology  for  Teach- 
ers," "What  Knowledge  is  of  Most  Worth?"  "The 
Problem  of  the  Well-to-do  Boy,"  "  The  Ideal  Use  of 
Libraries  by  the  People,"  "  Educational  Lessons  from 
Our  Reformatories,"  "The  Contribution  of  Pedagogy  to 
the  Teacher's  Profession,"  "Existing  Agencies  for  the 
Education  of  the  People,"  "Civics-Teaching  for  Young 
People,"  "Literature  for  Young  People,"  "The  Utili- 
zation of  the  Summer  Vacation  in  the  Educational 
Scheme." 

While  the  discussion  should  be  opened  by  one  or 
two  very  competent  persons,  there  should  always  be 
the  fullest  opportunity  for  the  members  to  participate. 
Persons  thus  taking  part  may  be  profitably  limited  to 
five  minutes,  and  they  should  not  be  permitted  to  wan- 
der far  from  the  question  in  hand. 

4.  A  social  hour  should  follow  the  discussion,  and 
every  effort  should  be  made  to  promote  acquaintance 
and  good-fellowship.  It  has  happened  in  several  in- 
stances that  the  education  society  has  furnished  the 
sole  opportunity  for  clergyman,  lawyer,  doctor,  business 
man,  and  teacher  to  meet  on  common  ground,  with  no 
distinctions  of  creed  or  profession. 

5.  The  society  should  appoint  committees  to  carry 
on  various  lines  of  educational  work,  whose  membership 
is  made  up  of  men  and  women  especially  fitted  for  the 
department  to  which  they  are  assigned.     Some  of  the 


222  School  Management 

objects  to  which  committees  may  devote  themselves  are 
child  study,  art,  music,  science,  physical  training,  school 
libraries,  portfolio  and  home  hygiene.  Each  sub-com- 
mittee should  report  at  the  annual  meeting  of  the  society 
upon  its  activities  for  the  year.  The  executive  commit- 
tee, including  the  otiicers  of  the  society,  should  arrange 
for  the  reg^ilar  meetings,  and  should  see  that  the  sub- 
committees are  encouraged  to  do  the  work  assigned 
them. 

It  has  been  found  that  under  the  right  leadership 
men  and  women  take  up  this  work  with  enthusiasm.  In- 
directly the  work  of  the  teacher  is  dignified  and  made 
more  interesting,  social  ban-iers  are  removed,  and  a 
more  democratic  and  wholesome  spirit  pervades  the 
entire  community.  The  chief  olijects  of  the  education 
society  may  be  summarized  as  follows : 

1.  To  develop  unity  and  co-operation  in  the  institu- 
tional life  of  the  community. 

2.  To  promote  a  broader  knowledge  of  the  science  of 
education  and  a  better  imderstanding  of  school  methods. 

3.  To  bring  teachers  and  parents  together,  and  thus 
to  unite  the  school  and  the  home. 

4.  To  strengthen  and  improve  such  culture  forces  as 
music,  the  fine  arts,  the  drama,  the  library,  and  ath- 
letics, so  that  the  thousands  who  are  enslaved  a  good 
part  of  each  day  to  monotonous  and  deadening  toil  may 
fill  their  leisure  hours  with  stimulating  and  uplifting 
occupation. 

5.  To  lift  the  schools  out  of  politics,  not  by  sporadic, 
oratorical  appeals,  but  by  a  rational  and  sustained  efi'ort 
through  which  voters  may  become  committed  to  what  is 
true  and  unselfish. 


The  School  as  a  Social  Centre         223 


7. — School  Decoration. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  go  deeply  into  this  subject. 
Art  teaching  in  the  schools  has  done  much  to  form 
the  taste  of  the  younger  generation,  and  teachers  can 
usually  call  to  their  assistance  persons  of  culture  and 
art  intelligence  to  aid  in  beautifying  school-rooms. 
There  can  be  no  question  that  beautiful  coloring  and 
artistic  arrangement  help  to  make  the  environment 
more  refining  and  impart  ideas  of  good  taste  to  children. 
Where  it  is  possible  to  place  in  the  corridors  and  school- 
rooms copies  of  the  masterpieces  in  painting  and  sculp- 
ture, the  school  becomes  still  more  attractive  and  in- 
spiring. It  is  surprising  how  easy  it  has  been  to  secure 
donations  of  money  for  this  purpose.  Where  parents' 
associations  and  education  societies  have  existed  the 
best  results  have  been  secured. 

Too  little  attempt  has  been  made  to  correlate  pictures 
and  casts  with  the  subject-matter  of  the  grade  in  which 
they  are  placed  or  with  the  age  and  advancement  of  the 
pupils.  This  is  an  interesting  field  and  invites  pains- 
taking study  and  care.  In  a  few  cases  in  school-rooms 
pursuing  American  history  the  subjects  are  connected 
with  the  grade  work.  In  another  instance  Great  Britain 
is  well  represented  and  the  pictui-es  are  related  to  the 
English  history. 

Works  of  art  will  naturally  be  somewhat  above  the 
plane  of  the  pupil's  thought  and  imagination,  but  ho 
will  grow  toward  them  year  by  year  as  he  is  brought 
under  their  influence,  and  they  will  have  a  place  in  his 
thought,  his  dreams,  and  his  quiet  hours  of  meditation. 


224  School  Management 

A  few  good  examples  of  art  well  framed  and  placed  are 
far  better  than  a  promiscuous  collection  of  cheaper 
pictures.  It  is  bad  form  to  have  too  many  scraps,  draw- 
ings, clippings,  and  bric-a-brac  exposed  upon  the  walls. 
Too  many  homes  present  the  appearance  of  a  junk-shop 
rather  than  a  place  controlled  by  good  taste  and  artistic 
arrangement.  The  school  should  set  a  high  standard  in 
this  respect,  and  combine  with  exquisite  cleanliness  and 
neatness  such  choice  artistic  adornment  as  will  defy 
criticism. 

It  might  at  first  appear  that  this  subject  of  school 
decoration  is  out  of  place  in  our  thought  of  a  school  as 
a  social  centre,  but  in  reality  it  will  be  found  to  perform 
the  function  of  both  cause  and  effect.  The  more  attrac- 
tive our  school-houses  are  made  the  more  readiness 
there  will  be  to  open  them  to  the  people,  and  the  more 
homelike  and  attractive  they  will  appear.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  greater  the  sense  of  proprietorship  the  people 
have  in  the  school  as  a  meeting-place  w^here  they  may 
cultivate  the  higher  nature  and  find  recreation  and 
stimulus,  the  more  eager  they  will  be  to  sustain  the 
school  authorities  in  making  the  school-house  and  its 
surroundings  a  true  educational  home  for  young  and 
old. 

TOPICAL   REVIEW 

1.  What  conditions  in  city  life  call  for  the  open  school-house  ? 

2.  Methods  of  organizing  classes  for  adults. 

3.  The  justification  of  school  extension  at  public  expense. 

4.  Pedagogy  for  parents. 

5.  What  educational  ideals  are  attractive  to  nearly  all  people  ? 

6.  Importance  of  keeping  out  bad  pictures. 

7.  The  unconscious  influence  of  good  pictures. 


CHAPTER   XVIU 

AFFILIATED  INTERESTS 

We  have  already  seen  liow  the  school  has  extended 
its  boundaries  in  many  directions.  We  have  seen  also 
that  the  principle  of  self-activity  leads  us  to  loosen  the 
bonds  of  formal  discipline  and  throw  an  increasing 
responsibility  upon  the  student.  With  the  growth  of 
the  broader  view  of  the  school  which  makes  individual 
self-control  and  social  adaptation  instead  of  mere  knowl- 
edge the  chief  aim,  there  have  grown  up  various  affili- 
ated activities.  These  offer  such  an  opportunity  for  the 
training  of  the  body,  mind,  and  spirit  together,  and 
are  so  productive  of  manly  and  womanly  qualities  that 
they  cannot  be  omitted  from  a  treatise  on  school  man- 
agement. It  is  unnecessary  to  make  an  argument  to 
prove  that  athletic,  literary,  and  musical  clubs  are  a 
natural  and  proper  part  of  the  school  life,  for  they 
express  not  merely  a  spontaneous  and  healthy  desire 
and  tendency  of  the  young  in  their  mental  and  moral 
growth,  but  also  a  distinct  need  of  education  on  the 
social  side.  Let  us  consider,  in  some  detail,  the  spe- 
cial functions  which  each  of  these  forms  of  supple- 
mentary work  is  fitted  to  perform. 

225 


226  School  Management 

1. — Athletics. 

Under  tins  head  may  be  included  organized  games 
and  sports,  such  as  foot-ball,  base-ball,  and  basket-ball, 
as  have  become  almost  universal.  Witli  these  also  must 
be  included  those  athletic  games  which  develojD  individ- 
ual students  in  running,  vaulting,  throwing,  etc.  These 
games  and  sports,  which  had  their  first  development  in 
our  colleges,  have  made  their  way  doAvnward  through  the 
several  grades  of  high  and  grammar  schools,  and  are  so 
impressive  and  captivating  to  the  younger  children  that 
even  the  primary  pupils  have  their  nines  and  teams. 
School-officers  and  observers  give  large  credit  to  these 
various  forms  of  activity,  not  only  for  Avhat  they  do  for 
physical  health,  but  for  their  value  in  developing  the 
higher  qualities  of  self-denial,  obedience,  loyalty,  and 
sportsmanlike  generosity.  Young  people  in  the  adoles- 
cent stage  possess  an  exuberance  of  energy,  which  if 
not  utilized  often  oversteps  the  bounds  of  reason  and 
control,  and  makes  trouble  for  the  oflfender  as  well  as 
for  others.  Dr.  Luther  Gulick  has  shown  that  the 
most  popular  forms  of  athletics  are  accompanied  by  an 
interest  which  gives  them  a  higher  place  in  education 
than  any  formal  and  systematic  scheme  of  gymnastics. 
In  other  words,  modern  sports  are  vitally  connected  with 
the  old  psychic  interests  of  the  race,  and  are  therefore 
valuable  because  they  satisfy  an  old  and  natural  apti- 
tude.    His  conclusions  are : 

"  1.  There  are  relations  between  certain  muscular 
contractions  with  definite  emotional  states,  as  well  as 
the  converse. 

"  2.  That  we  inherit,  also,  tendencies   toward  other 


Affiliated  Interests  227 

muscular  co-ordinations  that  have  been  of  great  racial 
utility. 

"  3.  That  both  these  co-ordinations  of  muscle  are  ac- 
quired by  the  individual  with  great  ease  and  joy. 

"  4.  That  these  racially  old  co-ordinations  are  basal  in 
neural,  rational,  and  moral  development. 

"  5.  That  athletic  sports  and  games  are  chiefly  com- 
posed of  racially  old  elements. 

"6.  Hence,  physical  training  should  pay  great  atten- 
tion to  phylogenetic  muscular  history,  and  chiefly  em- 
phasize racially  old  co-ordiuations  and  interests."  * 

It  is  evident  that  school  authorities  cannot  entirely 
surrender  the  care  and  direction  of  athletics  to  the 
school  body.  There  are  several  things  to  be  kept  con- 
stantly in  mind : 

1.  The  problem  should  receive  broad  treatment. 
The  best  possible  provision  should  be  made  for  play- 
grounds, both  for  girls  and  boys,  and  an  indoor  gymna- 
sium which  can  be  used  for  basket-ball  and  other  sports 
during  the  winter. 

2.  The  organization  and  control  of  the  various  ath- 
letic interests  should  be  lodged  as  fully  as  possible  in 
the  hands  of  the  students,  but  the  teaching  force  should 
be  represented  in  the  management,  and  should  control 
absolutely  the  times  and  places  for  training  ;  competi- 
tive games  with  outside  teams,  in  respect  to  when  and 
where,  and  how  many  ;  the  making  of  such  rules  as  will 
prohibit  those  who  are  negligent  in  their  other  school 
duties  from  playing  on  the  several  teams  ;  and  the 
methods  of  raising  and  spending  money. 

3.  Athletics  should   be  more   highly  differentiated. 

*  American  Physical  Education  Review.^  June,  1892,  page  65. 


228  School  Management 

This  is  a  pressing  need.  Provision  should  be  made  for 
the  girls  in  a  playground  that  is  properly  screened 
from  the  public  by  fences  or  hedges,  so  that  they  can 
play  in  gymnasium  suits.  The  ideal  American  game 
has  not  yet  been  invented.  That  will  call  for  a  much 
larger  number  of  participants,  so  that  the  majority  of  the 
school  will  no  longer  have  to  be  mere  spectators.  Ten 
thousand  people  witnessing  a  ball-game  is  inspiring,  but 
the  benefits  seem  to  be  restricted  to  the  few  who  do  the 
playing.  There  should  either  be  a  larger  number  of 
teams  or  the  invention  of  a  national  game  which  calls 
for  a  larger  number  of  players. 

4.  The  school  should  hold  itself  responsible  for  not 
allowing  athletics  to  be  overdone.  The  school  physician 
or  the  director  of  physical  training,  or  both,  should 
have  an  active  oversight  of  all  sports  and  games,  which 
should  be  regarded  as  a  regular  part  of  the  school  life,  and 
not  something  outside  of  it.  This  seems  to  be  the 
present  tendency  and  is  a  healthy  one.  The  more  prin- 
cipals and  teachers  are  present  when  practice  is  going 
on,  and  the  more  they  give  their  influence  to  encourage 
the  better  features  of  games,  the  more  will  results  ac- 
cord with  that  high  standard  to  which  the  American 
school  is  committed. 

2. — Literary  Societies. 

These  are  a  legacy  to  our  secondary  and  grammar 
schools  from  the  old  academies.  They  are  not  as  en- 
thusiastically supported  as  are  athletic  games.  This  may 
be  due  in  part  to  the  changed  curriculum,  which  calls  for 
a  larger  amount  of  literary  study  and  theme  writing. 


Affiliated  Interests  229 

But  here,  as  in  athletics,  there  is  a  field  for  student  ac- 
tivity which  in  its  possibilities  of  self-realization  and 
achievement  surpasses  the  class-room.  Here  also  wise 
and  skilful  leadership  is  needed. 

1.  The  school  literary  society  should  be  open  to  all, 
and  should  be  democratic.  In  a  large  school  there 
should  be  enough  societies  to  practically  absorb  all  the 
members.  The  tendency  to  form  secret  organizations  in 
a  school  is  not  healthful  if  it  interferes  with  the  larger 
movement  of  which  we  are  speaking.  There  can  be  no 
objection  to  a  group  of  students  meeting  together  for 
any  purpose,  social  or  intellectual,  provided  they  keep 
their  affairs  secret.  But  the  moment  they  begin  to  ad- 
vertise or  to  make  any  public  demonstration  they  be- 
come unsocial  and  excite  jealous  criticism. 

2.  The  literary  societies  of  the  school  should  cover  a 
wide  field  and  give  an  opportunity  for  talent  to  express 
itself  in  a  larger  and  freer  way  than  is  possible  in  the 
class-room.  In  some  cases  the  society  takes  the  form 
of  a  debating  club.  It  is  well  to  have  debating  as 
an  incidental  kind  of  work  in  a  society  which  affords 
opportunity  for  original  composition,  declamation,  short 
lectures,  and  music. 

No  one  can  question  the  value  of  training  young 
people  to  make  practical  use  of  their  attainments  in 
rhetoric  or  English,  through  written  and  oral  speech. 
Teachers  should  be  members  ex  officio  of  these  societies, 
and  should  strive  in  every  possible  way  to  have  tliem  do 
those  things  which  will  be  most  creditable  to  the  school 
and  most  helpful  to  its  members. 


230  School  Management 


S,-^The  School  Paper. 

The  publication  of  a  weekly  or  monthly  paper  is 
quite  common  in  our  best  schools.  These  papers  show 
a  Avide  range  in  the  excellence  of  their  form  and 
contents.  Some  are  too  ambitious  and  savor  some- 
what of  yellow  journalism.  Others  are  too  sombre  and 
stilted,  and  suggest  the  formal  method  of  the  class- 
room. The  school  paper  should  be  a  free  and  natural 
development  of  the  best  ideas  and  thoughts  of  the 
whole  school.  It  should  stand  midway  between  the 
life  of  the  school  and  the  world  outside,  and  should 
reflect  both  as  accurately  as  possible.  Especially 
should  it  represent  loyally  and  justly  such  news  about 
the  daily  workings  of  the  school  as  will  be  helpful  in 
the  homes  as  well  as  in  the  community.  Brief  articles 
upon  the  work  done  in  music,  art,  manual  training, 
science,  and  history  will  be  of  interest  and  value,  as 
pupils  who  do  not  take  these  subjects  will  have  a 
broader  idea  of  what  the  school  is  doing. 

The  board  of  editors  should  be  relatively  large  and 
well  organized  into  groups,  so  that  the  entire  field  may 
be  covered  without  entailing  too  gi-eat  labor  upon  indi- 
viduals. Teachers  should  not  only  give  oversight  and 
censorship,  if  necessary,  to  the  paper,  but  should  see  to 
it  that  the  business  side  is  carried  on  honorably  and 
efficiently,  and  that  all  obligations  are  promptly  met. 
The  papers  which  come  from  other  schools,  by  way  of 
exchanges,  should  be  placed  where  they  can  be  seen  and 
read  by  all  the  pupils. 


Affiliated  Interests  231 


4. — Musical  Clubs. 

Schools  and  homes  should  work  together  in  calling 
forth  those  tastes  and  inclinations,  which  give  to  many 
lives  their  highest  significance.  Love  of  music  is  partly 
natural,  and  partly  acquired.  The  school  should  culti- 
vate music,  not  merely  for  the  good  of  the  indi\'idual 
pupil,  but  for  its  own  sake.  The  glee  club,  the  school 
orchestra,  or  mandolin  club,  if  well  sustained  and 
brought  to  a  good  degree  of  cultivation,  is  a  delightful 
feature,  and  not  only  affords  pleasure  and  profit  to  its 
members,  but  has  a  good  influence  upon  the  whole 
school.  Above  all,  it  opens  a  special  door  of  oj^por- 
tunity  to  those  who  have  unusual  tastes  and  aspirations 
in  that  direction,  and  in  many  cases  has  given  wings  to 
genius.  The  school  that  possesses  music  is  able  on 
public  occasions  to  express  itself  to  its  patrons  and  citi- 
zens in  a  manner  that  is  at  once  pleasing  and  effective. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  speak  of  the  other  clubs  that 
have  been  found  useful  in  supplementing  the  school. 
There  are  now  in  successful  operation  natural  history 
clubs,  historical  societies,  French  and  German  clubs. 
The  school  should  interest  itself  not  only  to  foster 
these  various  forms  of  afiiliated  life,  but  should  see  that 
the  community  provides  those  culture  opportunities 
which  answer  to  them.  For  example,  the  members  of 
the  school  glee  club  should  graduate  into  a  town  choral 
society,  where  they  may  find  the  opportunity  of  study- 
ing and  performing  the  works  of  the  great  masters. 
Those  especially  interested  in  history  should  find  in  the 
community  some  well-organized  scheme  for  gathering 


232  School  Management 

up  and  husbandiug  such  talent.  This  is  quite  in  line 
with  what  has  been  said  in  a  previous  chapter  about 
invoking  the  aid  of  culture  forces  for  the  education  of 
the  people. 

5. — The  Summer  Camp. 

The  summer  camp  is  an  idealized  form  of  the  vaca- 
tion school.  It  has  not  yet  reached  its  highest  develop- 
ment. So  far  it  has  been  regarded  as  an  exclusive  and 
somewhat  expensive  luxury,  available  only  to  the  chil- 
dren of  the  well-to-do.  It  is  worth  considering  whether 
such  camps  might  be  conducted  at  public  expense  for  a 
short  season,  thus  giving  the  older  pupils  in  the  gram- 
mar schools,  boys  especially,  that  unique  experience 
which  brings  them  close  to  nature,  and  permits  them 
for  a  short  time  to  live  with  their  teachers,  as  it  were,  in 
a  home  where  there  is  the  fullest  opportunity  for 
mutual  confidence,  courtesy,  self-reliance,  and  co-op- 
eration. This  kind  of  contact  gives  the  principal  and 
his  teachers  an  insight  into  a  boj^'s  real  character  and 
worth,  and  tends  to  strengthen  greatly  their  hold  and 
increase  their  influence. 

6. — The  Alumni  Association. 

If  the  school  is  to  take  account  not  merely  of  its 
pupils,  but  of  all  those  who  have  been  under  its  influ- 
ence, it  will  endeavor  to  organize  its  old  pupils  in  a  way 
that  shall  be  mutually  advantageous.  The  boy  or  the 
girl  whose  school  life  is  over  is  often  cast  adrift.  The 
home  ties  are  not  strong  enough  to  prevent  or  ofi'set 
the  temptations  of  the  city.     The  alumni  association 


Affiliated  Interests  283 

should  take  such  active  interest  in  the  new  graduates  as 
to  provide  in  a  measure  for  their  intellectual  and  social 
needs.  There  should  be  occasional  meetings  through 
the  year,  and  un  annual  meeting  when  all  the  former 
pupils  are  gathered  together,  old  associations  are 
revived,  and  the  hand  of  friendship  is  extended  in  such 
a  way  as  to  make  all  feel  that  they  have  fellowship 
with  others,  who  are  striving  to  live  honestly  and  nobly. 
Here  is  the  culmination  of  the  educational  ideal,  to  wit, 
that  a  higher  friendship  shall  dominate  the  community 
life  and  make  men  and  women  willing  and  eager  to  help 
each  other,  knowing  that  the  wealth,  prosperity,  and 
good  name  of  the  community  are  dependent  upon  a 
imified  public  spirit  as  well  as  upon  mutual  confidence 
and  regard. 

TOPICAL  REVIEW 

X.  Why  are  student  organizations  to  be  encouraged  ? 

2.  The  psychological  factors  in  athletics. 

3.  Athletics  for  girls. 

4.  Has  the  modern  teaching  of  English  weakened  interest  in 

literary  work  ? 

5.  How  can  musical  interest  be  increased  ? 

6.  The  true  relations  of  the  alumni  to  the  schooL 


CHAPTER  XIX 
SUPERVISION 

It  is  not  the  intention  of  the  writer  to  go  deeply  into 
the  question  of  school  supervision.  Many  of  its  prob- 
lems are  political  and  economic,  and  have  little  to  do 
with  the  work  of  the  school.  It  is  pro})osed,  however, 
in  this  concluding  chapter  to  treat  those  relations  which 
superintendents,  principals,  and  supervisors  sustain  to 
each  other  and  to  teachers,  and  to  point  out  some  prin- 
ciples and  methods  which  experience  has  shown  to  be 
sound. 

All  that  has  been  written  in  this  volume  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  true  subject-matter  of  supervision.  It  has 
been  shown  that  certain  things  need  to  be  done,  that 
teachers  are  to  be  trained  continuously,  that  the  school 
plant  is  to  be  kept  in  order,  that  the  course  of  stud}'', 
programme,  recitations,  and  examinations  are  all  to  be 
constructed  and  carried  on  in  a  truly  educative  spirit, 
and  that  the  school  in  its  various  forms  of  activity  is  to 
minister  to  the  ideal  life.  However  earnest  and  skilful 
teachers  may  be,  there  is  no  hope  that  these  high  aims 
will  be  reached  unless  there  is  one  strong  controlling 
mind  which  communicates  its  spirit  and  policy  to  all 
the  workers,  and  by  fine  tact  and  efficient  leadership 
draws  them  into  partnership  and  co-operation. 

234 


Supervision  235 


1. — The  Superintendent, 

In  the  small  rural  school  the  teacher  usually  has  the 
largest  amount  of  freedom,  and  to  a  good  degree  frames 
his  own  policy.  In  a  small  community  where  all  the 
children  attend  one  graded  school  the  guiding  hand 
is  usually  that  of  the  principal,  who  exercises  in  his 
relation  to  the  school-board  some  of  the  ordinary  func- 
tions of  the  superintendent.  In  the  larger  community 
possessing  a  small  group  of  schools,  or  in  the  large  city 
system,  it  is  the  superintendent  who  impresses  himself 
upon  the  school-board,  shapes  their  opinions  and  ac- 
tions, communicates  to  principals  and  teachers  the 
general  policy,  and  in  every  possible  way  endeavors  to 
have  this  policy  successfully  carried  out. 

The  superintendent  should  have  a  cultivated  mind,  a 
fairly  good  knowledge  of  men  and  things,  and  his  per- 
sonal character  should  be  above  reproach.  He  should 
also  possess  a  good  knowledge  of  the  history  and  theory 
of  education,  and  should  have  mature  judgment  upon 
the  many  practical  questions  with  which  he  has  to  deal. 
He  should  rejoice  in  his  profession,  should  love  his 
daily  work,  and  in  every  possible  way  should  seek  to 
elevate  and  ennoble  the  service  which  he  and  his  asso- 
ciates are  called  to  perform. 

2. — Need  of  a  Definite  Policy. 

Nothing  is  so  good  for  a  school  system,  or  is  regarded 
with  more  favor  by  the  public,  than  a  superintendent 
who  has  ideas  for  which  he  is  willing  to  stand  or  fall ; 


236  School  Management 

things  in  which  he  believes  and  which  seem  to  him 
especially  pertinent  to  the  situation.  Every  community 
has  its  own  local  needs  and  peculiarities.  A  superin- 
tendent should  be  quick  to  recognize  these.  He  should 
not  be  too  stubborn  nor  too  hasty  in  announcing  his 
policy.  It  is  sometimes  just  as  well  to  go  around  a 
difficulty  as  to  run  against  it.  It  is  well,  also,  to  gauge 
one's  own  rate  of  speed  in  introducing  new  features.  It 
is  much  easier  to  make  progress  when  the  superintend- 
ent has  taken  the  public  into  his  confidence,  and  has 
given  them  some  idea  of  what  he  would  like  to  accom- 
plish. The  columns  of  the  local  newspaper  can  be  used 
for  this  purpose.  Parents'  meetings,  public  days,  and 
other  occasions  will  afford  the  opportunity  for  statiug 
and  restating  the  most  important  needs  of  the  local 
schools,  and  thus  creating  an  intelligent  public  senti- 
ment. No  matter  if  a  few  array  themselves  in  opposi- 
tion, provided  there  is  a  good  healthy  majority  in  favor 
of  improvement. 

The  superintendent  with  a  policy  deeply  rooted  in 
moral  ideas,  who  is  more  highly  charged  with  educa- 
tional and  patriotic  sentiment  than  with  demands  for 
large  expenditure,  is  quite  sure  to  carry  the  people  with 
him.  It  is  easier  to  secure  appropiations  for  beautiful 
school-sites  and  fine  buildings  when  there  are  high 
moral  and  educational  motives  moving  the  public  mind 
and  conscience. 

3. — Relation  to  the  School-Board. 

The  superintendent  must  convince  the  board  of  the 
wisdom  of  his  policy.  He  will  leave  no  stone  unturned 
to  bring  the  board  to  his  point  of  view.   If  he  cannot  do 


Supervision  237 

this  absolutely  lie  will  at  least  establish  a  working  basis 
and  go  forward  hoping  and  believing  that  his  policy  will 
ultimately  prevail.  A  modem  tendency  in  school  admin- 
istration, and  one  to  be  encouraged,  is  the  plan  of  giving 
the  superintendent  almost  entire  freedom  in  affairs  that 
are  strictly  educational,  while  the  board  exercises  legisla- 
tive functions  merely.  Even  where  the  authority  is  thus 
highly  centralized  in  the  superintendent,  the  writer  be- 
lieves that  the  school-board  should  be  kept  as  fully 
informed  as  possible,  and  should  feel  a  sympathetic  and 
approving  interest  in  all  that  is  done.  In  every  instance 
where  there  has  been  a  schism  between  superintendent 
and  board  the  situation  has  become  intolerable  and  the 
tenure  of  office  of  the  superintendent  has  been  short. 
While  it  is  necessary  in  our  large  cities  to  have  the 
selection  of  teachers,  the  framing  of  the  courses  of 
study,  and  the  supervision  of  instruction  placed  in  the 
hands  of  experts,  it  is  necessary  for  the  superintendent 
and  his  board  to  hold  common  ground  and  stand  to- 
gether in  all  measures  looking  to  progress  and  reform. 

4. — Relation  to  the  Community. 

Some  who  have  written  upon  school  administration 
have  implied  that  if  a  superintendent  is  elected  by  a 
non-partisan  board  for  a  long  term  and  is  given  some- 
what independent  powers,  he  need  consult  no  one,  and 
may  be  as  autocratic  as  he  pleases.  There  could  be  no 
greater  fallacy.  In  a  democratic  country  like  ours  there 
is  no  public  official,  be  it  the  President  of  the  United 
States,  the  governor  of  a  State,  a  member  of  Congress, 
or  an  alderman,  who  is  not  directly  responsible  to  the 


238  School  Management 

people  for  his  acts.  The  people  so  understand  it  and 
will  not  consent  to  a  dififerent  understanding.  A  super- 
intendent of  schools  by  endeavoring  to  take  the  appoint- 
ment of  teachers  out  of  politics  and  freeing  the  schools 
from  incompetency  will  invariably  be  sustained  by  the 
best  elements.  If  he  attempts  revolutionary  measures, 
independently  of  the  board  and  regardless  of  public 
sentiment,  he  is  sure  to  reap  a  harvest  of  opposition  and 
trouble.  It  is  far  better  as  a  faithful  servant  of  the 
community  to  evoke  their  support  and  aid  by  pointing 
out  the  main  lines  of  the  new  policy.  Showing  one's 
hand  has  been  found  to  work  well.  The  public  officer 
who  does  it  is  usually  sustained  by  the  press,  which  al- 
ways has  to  be  reckoned  with. 

5. — Relation  to  Principals  and  Teachers. 

Here,  after  all,  the  superintendent  has  his  finest  op- 
portunity. To  develop  unity  of  plan  and  to  impart 
the  spirit,  at  least,  of  his  desires  and  aspirations  to  the 
whole  teaching  force  without  curtailing  their  freedom  or 
crushing  out  individual  initiative,  requires  the  skilled 
tactician.  That  general  policy  to  which  we  have  re- 
ferred must  be  interpreted  and  made  clear  to  principals 
and  teachers.  How  important  the  teachers'  meeting  is 
for  this  purpose  we  have  previously  shown.  If  a  super- 
intendent cannot  call  his  principals  into  council,  and 
win  their  confidence  and  loyalty,  his  policy  and  his  work 
will  measurably  fail.  He  will  be  misquoted  and  misun- 
derstood in  the  various  schools,  and  where  there  ought 
to  be  genuine  frankness  and  open-handed  co-operation 
there  is  hypocritic  pretence  and  evasion.     Some  super- 


Supervision  239 

intendents  never  know  how  disloyal  their  teachers  are 
and  how  distinctly  traceable  this  condition  is  to  the 
principals.  So  I  say  again,  a  superintendent  must  have 
a  strong  and  closely  knit  body  of  followers  in  his  prin- 
cipals, a  body-guard,  as  it  were,  who  are  as  loyal  as  if 
they  had  sworn  to  die  in  his  defence.  As  he  expects 
them  to  deal  honorably  and  candidly  with  him,  so  he  will 
be  careful  to  do  them  full  justice  in  public  and  in  pri- 
vate, and  to  give  them  that  sujiport  which  they  in  turn 
are  to  give  their  teachers. 

Having  established  this  relation  with  the  principal, 
it  becomes  easy  for  the  superintendent  to  enter  the 
class-room,  and  to  lend  a  hand  in  any  work  that  may 
be  in  progress.  He  will  take  note  of  everything,  and 
esteem  nothing  trivial  or  unimportant.  His  suggestions, 
and  he  should  always  be  ready  to  make  them,  will  fit 
into  and  harmonize  with  those  of  the  principal,  and  the 
teacher  will  never  be  perplexed  by  the  feeling  that  he 
has  two  masters  to  serve  and  two  policies  to  carry  out. 

The  presence  of  a  superintendent  in  a  school-room 
should  not  cause  alarm  or  disturbance  of  any  sort.  It 
is  important  that  he  should  know  what  the  normal  life 
of  the  school  is,  and  so  therefore  he  will  hesitate  to  in- 
terrupt or  ask  for  a  change  of  programme.  As  he  has 
superior  opportunities  to  see  the  best  work  as  he  goes 
from  school  to  school,  it  should  be  one  of  his  functions 
to  disseminate  these  best  methods  and  devices,  and  thus 
secure  a  high  general  average  of  school  work. 

Whether  a  superintendent  should  ever  conduct  a  reci- 
tation in  the  presence  of  the  teacher  is  a  question 
which  he  only  can  settle  in  the  light  of  time,  place,  and 
circumstances.     In  nine  cases  out  of  ten  he  will  teach 


240  School  Management 

more  poorly  than  the  class  teacher.  If  he  realizes  this 
and  bases  his  claim  for  the  privilege  of  teaching  upon  a 
desire  to  know  the  pupils  better,  no  serious  harm  is 
likely  to  be  done.  I  doubt  if  a  superintendent  is  likely 
to  improve  instruction  by  undertaking  to  give  model 
lessons. 

The  wise  superintendent  will  heed  what  has  been 
said  in  a  former  chapter  about  the  danger  of  too  much 
uniformit}',  and  the  value  of  lettiug  each  school  have 
some  ideals  of  its  own  which  are  suited  to  the  conditions 
in  which  it  is  placed.  A  school  in  the  slums  may  do 
just  as  efficient  work  as  one  located  in  the  Back  Bay  of 
Boston,  but  it  will  naturally  have  different  aims  and 
will  do  its  Avork  in  a  somewhat  different  way.  This  fact 
should  influence  the  superintendent  whenever  he  is 
tempted  to  set  a  uniform  examination  or  make  a  com- 
parison of  statistics  respecting  attendance,  tardiness,  or 
results  in  scholarship.  A  school  whose  personnel  in 
the  lower  grades  consists  largely  of  foreigners  with 
little,  if  any,  knowledge  of  English,  whose  homes  are  in 
the  worst  of  tenement-houses,  must  be  strongly  indus- 
trial, moral,  and  social  in  its  training.  These  children, 
who  have  back  of  them  many  generations  of  poverty  and 
filth,  must  be  taught  to  be  clean,  industrious,  honest, 
and  thrifty,  while  they  are  at  the  same  time  acquiring 
the  use  of  the  mother-tongue.  In  the  Back  Bay  school, 
whose  children  come  from  homes  of  opulence,  where 
good  breeding  and  refinement  are  the  family  inheri- 
tance, the  school  may  devote  itself  more  unreservedly  to 
scholarship.  The  superintendent  who  regards  each 
school  as  having  an  individuality  of  its  own,  with 
unique  opportunities  and  a  special  mission,  will  best 


Supervision  241 

serve  the  community  and  reflect  the  greatest  credit  upon 
his  profession.  Every  school  should  be  encouraged  to 
make  some  experiments,  and  so  there  will  be  newness  of 
life  and  some  contribution  to  progress  in  which  all  may 
share. 

Finally,  while  the  superintendent  should  be  thor- 
oughly business-like  and  painstaking  in  all  material  in- 
terests of  the  schools,  he  should  find  a  better  use  of  his 
time  than  in  keeping  accounts  and  compiling  statistics. 
The  interests  of  all  the  children  of  the  commimity  are 
in  his  hands,  including  their  health,  moral  and  mental 
culture.  He  must  be  a  close  student  and  must  keep 
abreast  of  the  times  in  the  science  of  education  if  he  is 
to  instruct  and  inspire  the  teaching  staff. 

6. — The  Principal. 

No  other  person  in  the  school  system  can  do  so  much 
good  at  first  hand.  He  can  plant  the  seed  and  see  it 
grow  up  to  maturity.  I  have  in  mind  at  this  moment 
several  men  w^ho  have  presided  over  the  same  schools 
until  children  of  the  third  generation  are  under  their 
care.  Their  names  are  household  words  in  every  home. 
They  are  the  best  known  men  in  the  whole  neighbor- 
liood,  and  exert  more  influence  than  any  number  of 
clergymen  who  may  happen  to  be  in  those  parts  for  a 
brief  season. 

Whether  a  principal  be  young  or  old,  he  is  a  privi- 
leged person.  He  can  both  teach  and  supervise.  He 
can  know  the  pupils  and  call  them  by  name.  He  is  a 
welcome  visitor  in  the  homes  and  can  form  many  friend- 
ships good  for  a  lifetime.     He  can  gradually  make  the 


242  School  Management 

school  and  its  surroundings  attractive  and  homelike. 
He  can  exert  a  good  influence  upon  the  young,  not  only 
in  the  school  but  elsewhere,  and  may  cultivate  such 
local  pride  and  such  a  love  for  the  school  as  will  re- 
strain his  pupils  from  Avrong-doing. 

The  priucij^al  finds  his  greatest  opportunity  in  guid- 
ing and  supporting  his  teachers.  They  have  many  bur- 
dens to  carry,  and  often  suffer  from  bad  conditions. 
Dr.  Bumham,  of  Clark  University,  on  the  basis  of  a 
large  number  of  reports  from  teachers,  has  summarized 
these  conditions  as  follows  :  Poor  ventilation,  poor  Kght, 
coal-gas,  poor  drinking  water,  improper  heating,  damp- 
ness, working  by  gas-light,  dust,  cold  halls,  cold  floors, 
noisy  streets,  smoke,  nearness  to  railroads,  swamps, 
cesspools,  out-houses,  etc.  Among  the  bad  conditions 
incidental  to  instruction :  Too  many  papers  to  be  cor- 
rected, visitors,  overwork,  too  large  classes,  no  rest,  long 
periods  and  sessions,  heavy  responsibilities,  nervous 
strain,  quantitative  requirements,  too  much  supervision 
by  superintendents.  The  principal  must  be  conscious 
of  all  these  evils  and  must  use  his  utmost  skill  in  over- 
coming them.  He  must  help  his  teachers  by  sympathiz- 
ing with  them,  by  sharing  their  burdens,  and  by  giving 
them  every  possible  encouragement. 

The  natural  tendency  w^hich  people  have  to  organize 
on  a  uniform  pattern  may  be  carried  to  excess  by  the 
principal  as  well  as  by  the  superintendent.  Some  por- 
tions of  a  garden  will  produce  more  than  some  other 
portions.  The  office  of  the  gardener  is  to  have  every 
plant  attain  the  best  growth  possible  under  the  circum- 
stances. Variety  is  good  in  the  school,  ^t  is  well  for 
the  pupil  in  passing  from  grade  to  grade  to  find  some- 


Supervision  243 

thing  new  and  interesting  wliicli  he  has  not  met  with 
before.  Thus  individual  teachers  are  to  be  encouraged 
by  the  principal  to  be  fresh  and  original  in  their 
methods,  so  that  every  school-room  has  something 
unique  compelling  the  interest  and  admiration  of  the 
visitor.  The  school  is  much  less  formal  than  it  has 
been,  and  the  value  placed  upon  motor  training  calls  for 
great  ingenuity  in  devising  hand-work  through  which 
the  child  can  express  himself  and  gain  knowledge  and 
experience  concerning  things  and  processes.  In  fur- 
thering this  newer  development  the  principal  has  a  field 
of  endless  opportunity.  He  is  no  longer  a  court  of 
justice  or  a  dispenser  of  discipline,  but  rather  a  director 
of  enterprises  and  industries.  The  three  R's,  instead  of 
becoming  less  important,  have  become  more  so,  because 
they  are  brought  into  vital  connection  with  what  the 
child  loves  to  do  and  think  about.  The  principal  must 
not  only  be  in  earnest  in  working  out  a  newer  and  more 
vital  education,  but  he  must  be  able  to  explain  what  he 
is  doing  to  his  patrons  and  make  them  intelligent 
believers  in  the  new  reffime.  He  must  indoctrinate  his 
teachers  also  in  this  gospel,  so  that  they  may  be  not 
merely  disciples  but  apostles. 

Where  there  is  no  school  physician  the  principal 
should  assume  this  office  and  should  know  enough  of 
the  ordinary  diseases  of  children  to  detect  any  suspi- 
cious symptoms  and  do  all  in  his  power  to  prevent 
contagion.  Every  school  has  its  weak  and  backward 
pupils,  and  possibly  some  who  are  more  or  less  de- 
fective. If  the  principal  does  not  discover  these  cases 
and  make  Some  provision  for  their  proper  treatment 
they  are  likely  to  be  neglected  and   prove  an  endless 


244  School  Management 

source  of  irritation  aud  annoyance  to  the  teacher. 
Underneath  the  exterior  of  children  there  are  many 
secrets  which  if  known  and  understood  by  the  principal 
would  lead  to  more  individual  attention  and  prevent 
those  unhappy  conditions  too  often  caused  by  ignorant 
and  unjust  treatment. 

7. — T]ie  Conclusion  of  the  Whole  Matter. 

It  is  clearly  seen  that  the  term  school  management 
covers  a  long  list  of  functions  and  requirements  in 
which  supervising  officers  and  teachers  are  equally  inter- 
ested. What  we  had  to  say  about  supervision  was 
reserved  to  a  final  chapter  in  order  that  the  whole  field 
might  be  surveyed  and  the  teacher  given  his  rightful 
position.  If  any  school  in  city  or  country  amounts  to 
anything,  it  is  because  there  is  a  teacher  there  whose 
living,  working  presence  is  felt  by  every  pupil.  Too 
little  supervision  is  better  than  too  much,  and  the  great- 
est teachers  the  world  has  ever  seen  had  no  supervision 
whatever. 

The  new  ideals  of  efficiency  to  which  reference  was 
made  in  the  first  chapter  presuppose  a  wider  field  of 
influence  for  the  school.  It  has  been  shown  how  school 
management  may  operate  along  these  new  lines.  Some 
will  contend  that  the  school  should  work  more  narrowly 
and  intensively,  but  it  is  of  little  use  to  turn  back  the 
hands  of  progress.  The  new  and  generally  received 
definitions  of  education  call  for  something  larger  and 
better  than  is  generally  seen  at  present.  The  hygienic, 
industrial,  and  social  obligations  of  the  school  are  all 
comparatively  new.     The   alphabet   upon  which   their 


Supervision  245 

nomenclature  Is  constructed  has  hardly  yet  been  learned. 
Fortunately,  in  turning  our  attention  to  these  new 
inquiries  we  are  able  to  slough  off  and  discard  some 
things  that  were  once  made  very  prominent  in  school 
organization.  Without  being  revolutionary  the  hope  is 
entertained  that  these  pages  may  tend  to  minimize 
organization  as  such,  throw  a  stronger  emphasis  upon 
the  scientific  nurture  and  development  of  the  individual 
life,  and  bring  the  school  into  a  closer  alliance  with 
every  movement  which  seeks  the  betterment  and  the 
happiness  of  the  people. 

TOPICAL  REVIEW 

1.  Supervision  is  coextensive  with  all  school  work. 

2.  What  training  is  needed  for  the  superintendent  ? 

3.  In  what  sense  may  he  be  co-ordinate  with  the  school  board  ? 

4.  Reasons  for  educating  the  people  to  high  standards. 

5.  How  may  superintendent  and  principal  both  supervise  with- 
out causing  friction? 

6.  Should  a  principal  teach  classes  ? 

7.  In  what  sense  have  the  ideals  of  school  management  under- 
gone  recent  changes  ? 


APPENDIX 


APPENDIX 


OUTLINES  OF  LESSONS 

These  outlines  are  intended  to  illustrate  certain  fun- 
damental principles  which  are  presented  in  Chapters  XI. 
and  XII.  on  the  "  Recitation."  There  is  such  richness 
of  content  in  every  lesson  that  interest  is  sure  to  abound, 
providing  the  teaching  is  good.  Breadth  of  knowledge 
and  fertility  of  device  must  be  present  or  the  teaching 
amounts  to  nothing. 

The  five  formal  steps  can  be  traced  in  each  lesson,  or 
series  of  lessons,  although  they  are  less  distinctly 
marked  in  some  than  in  others.  It  is  evident  that  the 
teacher's  preparation  is  a  vital  element.  All  that  he 
has  read  and  experienced,  as  well  as  the  results  of  travel 
and  reflection,  enter  into  the  teacher's  outfit  and  make 
the  daily  preparation  the  easier. 


A  HISTORY  LESSON  FOR  PUPILS  OF  THE 
HIGHEST   GRADE 

subject:  magna  charta 

Aim  for  Teacher. — To  lead  the  pupils  to  see  how  the 

great  idea  of  tlie  interdependence  and  well-being  of  all 
classes  of  men  were  deniiiudcd  by  Magna  Charta. 

249 


250  School  Management 

Pupils*  Aim. — To  find  out  the  debt  of  the  American 
Constitution  to  the  Magna  Charta. 

Preparation. — Meaning  of  subject  words. 

Of  what  other  charters  have  we  ever  heard  ?  Charters 
of  William  I.,  Henry  I.,  and  charters  granted  American 
colonies. 

Why  is  this  one  called  "  the  great*'  ? 

Before  beginning  the  study  of  our  subject,  let  us  have 
a  summary  of  the  chief  events  of  the  reign  in  which  it  came 
into  existence. 

Summary. — John's  undignified  name  "  Lackland/* 
given  him  by  his  father,  was  made  a  reality  by  his  three 
fatal  quarrels. 

First,  he  quarrelled  with  the  King  of  France,  his  overlord 
refusing  to  come  to  France,  and  answer  the  charges  made 
against  him  by  the  Norman  barons.  By  this  refusal  he 
was  declared  traitor,  and  sentenced  to  forfeit  all  his  lands 
on  the  Continent.  His  resistance  availed  little,  for  the 
war  that  followed  deprived  him  of  all  land  north  of  the 
Loire. 

Second,  he  quarrelled  with  Pope  Innocent  III.,  who  had 
ordered  a  delegation  of  monks  to  elect  Stephen  Langton 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  John  refused  to  alloAv  Lang- 
ton  to  land  in  England,  and  bore  the  Pope's  interdict  and 
even  his  excommunication  with  scorn. 

To  bring  the  king  to  terms,  the  Pope  ordered  the  King 
of  France  to  seize  England's  throne.  Thoroughly  fright- 
ened, John  hurried  to  submit,  not  only  receiving  Stephen 
Langton,  but  paying  $G4,000  yearly  to  the  Pope  for  the 
privilege  of  keeping  his  crown. 

Third,  he  quarrelled  with  his  own  barons,  the  chief  men 
of  influence  in  England.  He  had  refused  to  allow  the 
Church  to  fill  its  ofiices  or  enjoy  its  revenues.  He  had  ex- 
torted large  sums  from  the  barons.     He  had  compelled 


Outlines  of  Lessons  251 

merchants  to  pay  large  sums  of  money  to  carry  on  business 
in  peace.  He  had  sent  to  prison  men  on  make-believe 
charges,  and  kept  them  there.  He  had  unjustly  claimed 
large  sums  from  poor  men,  and  had  seized  their  carts  and 
tools  so  they  could  not  earn  their  living. 

Presentation. — Material  needed  •  A  facsimile  copy 
of  Magna  Charta  and  one  of  the  United  States  Constitu- 
tion. 

A  set  of  English  histories  containing  Magna  Charta  in 
English.  A  set  of  American  histories  containing  the 
Constitution. 

Method  of  Presentation.— What  classes  of  society 
had  suffered  by  John's  misrule  ? 

Who  undertook  the  task  of  reform  ? 

Who  was  their  leader  ? 

Where  was  first  meeting  held  ? 

What  model  charter  did  Laugton  there  present  ? 

After  the  king's  crestfallen  return  from  Bouvines,  where 
did  the  second  meeting  take  place  ? 

Can  you  justify  the  result  of  this  second  meeting,  viz., 
they  solemnly  swore  before  the  high  altar  that  they  would 
make  the  king  grant  the  new  charter  or  they  would  declare 
war  against  him  ? 

Result. — At  Easter  these  same  barons  met  the  king  at 
Oxford,  and  told  him  what  they  wanted.  Seeing  that  he 
could  not  evade  them,  John  said,  "Let  the  day  be  the  15th 
of  June  and  the  place  Ilunnymede.'* 

At  that  date  and  place  did  the  king  set  his  seal  to 
Magna  Charta. 

What  was  the  meaning  of  the  king's  angry  cry,  "  They 
have  set  five-and-twenty  kings  over  me." 

Now  let  us  turn  to  the  document  itself  : 

How  many  provisions  does  it  contain  ? 

It  redressed  the  grievances  of  the  Church,  then  of  the 


252  School  Management 

barons  and  their  tenants,  then  of  citizens  and  tradesmen, 
then  of  villeins  and  serfs. 

Three  were  of  tremendous  importance  to  every  man  in 
the  land  : 

1.  No  freeman  shall  be  imprisoned  except  by  the  lawful 
judgment  of  his  peers  or  by  the  law  of  the  land. 

2.  Justice  shall  neither  be  sold,  denied,  nor  delayed. 

3.  All  taxes,  except  the  feudal  dues,  shall  be  imposed 
only  by  the  consent  of  the  national  council. 

Comparison. — Magna  Charta  is  England's  first  great 
document  of  constitutional  government.  What  is  that  of 
the  United  States  ? 

When  was  the  Constitution  drawn  up  ?  When  was  it 
accepted  by  the  States  ?  Who  were  some  of  the  signers  ? 
How  do  the  two  documents  compare  in  size  ?  Number 
of  articles  ?  What  articles  in  the  Constitution  deal  with 
the  same  subjects  as  Magna  Charta  ?  Under  what  circum- 
stances was  the  Constitution  drawn  up  ?  What  new  issues, 
not  provided  for  in  Magna  Charta,  did  we  have  to  meet  ? 
What  was  exactly  stated  in  the  Constitution  that  was  only 
implied  in  Magna  Charta  ?  (Habeas  corpus.)  For  what 
classes  of  society  did  the  barons  work  in  Magna  Charta  ? 
For  what  classes  did  the  f  ramers  of  the  Constitution  work  ? 

Generalization. — Give  a  summary  of  the  facts  of 
Magna  Charta,  and  a  comparison  of  its  provisions  with 
those  of  the  Constitution.  What  facts  of  Magna  Charta 
have  proved  of  surpassing  worth  to  Englishmen  everywhere 
for  five  and  a  half  centuries  ? 

Application. — Magna  Charta  expressed  the  attempt  of 
men  to  ameliorate  the  lot  of  their  fellow-beings  at  a 
time  when  the  different  classes  of  society  were  separated 
by  almost  inconceivable  barriers.  In  our  pride  in  our 
own  land,  what  must  we  remember  that  we  owe  to  Magna 
Charta  ? 


Outlines  of  Lessons  253 

This  great  hnman  idea  of   brotherhood  was  long  ago 
recognized  by  the  law-makers  in  Magna  Charta. 

"  Then  let  us  pray,  that  come  it  may 

As  come  it  will  for  a^  that. 
That  sense  and  worth  o'er  a'  the  earth 

May  bear  the  gree,  and  a'  that ; 
For  a'  that,  and  a'  that. 

It's  coming  yet  for  a'  that 
That  man  to  man,  the  warld  o*er, 

Shall  brothers  be,  for  a'  that." 

A  LITEEATUKE   LESSON  FOR   HIGHER 
GRADE  PUPILS 

THE    SOLITARY    REAPER 

BY    WILLIAM     WORDSWORTH 

Behold  her,  single  in  the  field. 
Yon  solitary  Highland  Lass  ! 
Eeaping  and  singing  by  herself  ; 
Stop  here,  or  gently  pass  ! 
Alone  she  cuts  and  binds  the  grain. 
And  sings  a  melancholy  strain  ; 
0  listen  !  for  the  Vale  profound 
Is  overflowing  with  the  sound. 

No  nightingale  did  ever  chaunt 
More  welcome  notes  to  weary  bands 
Of  travellers  in  some  shady  haunt 
Among  Arabian  sands : 
A  voice  so  thrilling  ne'er  was  heard 
In  spring-time  from  a  Cuckoo-bird, 
Breaking  the  silence  of  the  seas 
Among  the  farthest  Hebrides. 


254  School  Management 

Will  no  one  tell  me  what  she  sings? 
Perhaps  the  plaintive  numbers  flow 
For  old,  nnhappy,  far-off  things 
And  battles  long  ago  : 
Or  is  it  some  more  hnmble  lay. 
Familiar  matter  of  to-day? 
Some  natural  sorrow,  loss,  or  pain. 
That  has  been,  and  may  be  again  ? 

Whate'er  the  theme,  the  maiden  sang 
As  if  her  song  could  have  no  ending ; 
I  saw  her  singing  at  her  work 
And  o'er  the  sickle  bending  ; — 
I  listened,  motionless  and  still ; 
And,  as  I  mounted  up  the  hill. 
The  music  in  my  heart  I  bore. 
Long  after  it  was  heard  no  more. 

Preparation. — Aims :  1.  The  first  aim  in  the  teaching 
of  this  poem  is  an  ethical  one.  It  is  to  awaken  in  chil- 
dren an  ideal  of  service  through  the  common  task  (the 
reaping),  and  arouse  the  appreciation  of  the  reaper's  un- 
conscious service  in  inspiring  the  poet  by  the  beauty  of  the 
air  of  the  song. 

2.  To  widen  the  children's  horizon  by  an  interest  in 
these  foreign  lands,  viz.,  the  lake  country  of  England, 
Wordsworth's  home  ;  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  the 
reaper's  home  ;  the  far-off  Hebrides  ;  the  sandy  Arabia. 

3.  To  increase  a  knowledge  and  love  of  natural  objects  : 
the  vale,  the  hill,  the  lonely  field,  the  nightingale,  the 
cuckoo. 

4.  To  teach  the  use  of  beautiful  words  :  thrilling,  soli- 
tary, profound,  plaintive,  humble,  familiar,  mounted. 

5.  To  train  the  power  of  logical  thinking,  by  carefully 


Outlines  of  Lessons  255 

questioning  the  poem  to  discover  the  truth,  apparent  and 
underlying.  Also  the  power  of  discriminating  apprecia- 
tion, by  requiring  children  to  answer  questions  in  the 
words  of  the  poem. 

6.  To  train  the  memory  by  learning  the  four  stanzas  by 
heart. 

Special  Preparation. — Material  Needed :  Pictures  or 
photographs  of  the  Highlands  in  the  region  of  Loch  Lo- 
mond near  the  scene  of  the  poem,  to  give  pupils  interest 
in  the  home  of  the  reaper. 

In  order  that  the  pupils  may  enter  into  the  spirit  of  the 
poem  they  must  know  something  of  the  poet  and  his  home. 
The  lesson  may  be  begun  by  showing  to  the  class  photo- 
graphs of  the  Vale  of  Grasmere,  where  Wordsworth  drew 
great  draughts  of  inspiration  for  his  own  service  to  men  ; 
another  of  his  home,  Dove  Cottage  ;  a  bit  of  Lake  Winde- 
mere,  where  the  lake  and  its  guardian  hills  still  wear  their 
beauty,  as  if  conscious  of  the  poet's  boyhood  love.  They 
should  see  the  photograph,  also,  of  the  little  Church  of  St. 
Oswald,  and  the  yew-tree  in  the  yard  where  sleeps  the 
great  interpreter  of  nature  beside  the  Rotha,  which  still 
obeys  unweariedly  the  charge — 

"  Sing  him  thy  best,  for  few  or  none 
Hear  thy  voice  right,  now  he  is  gone." 

Presentation. — 1.  Why  was  the  poet  interested  in  the 
Scottish  Highlands  ?    (Early  visit  there.) 

Why  does  he  call  the  reaper  "  Lass  "  ? 

In  how  many  expressions  in  the  first  stanza  does  he  make 
ns  feel  the  force  of  ''solitary  "  in  the  title  ? 

How  are  we  made  to  feel  the  loneliness  of  the  grain-field? 

To  whom  is  the  poet  talking  in  the  fourth  line?  What 
does  it  show  you  of  his  great  courtesy  ? 


256  School  Management 

How  do  you  feel  the  dignity  of  the  labor  of  the  maiden? 

Why  does  ''Vale  profound  "  mean  so  much  more  than  if 
he  had  said  "deep  valley"  ? 

2.  Why  does  the  poet  compare  the  maiden's  song  to  the 
nightingale's  instead  of  to  his  favorite  skylark  ? 

What  does  tlie  dignified  spelling  of  "chaunt"  suggest 
to  you  ? 

What  reminds  you  in  this  second  stanza  that  the  poet  is 
away  from  his  own  laud  ?  Do  you  see  how  the  loneliness  of 
the  song  in  the  valley  suggests  the  cuckoo's  visit  to  the 
lonely  Hebrides  rather  than  to  smiling,  happy  England  ? 

The  girl's  work  of  reaping  and  binding  the  grain  could  be 
comprehended  at  sight,  but  the  plaintive  music  awakened 
a  questioning  response  in  the  poet's  heart.  Perhaps  the 
maiden  was  singing  the  story  of  the  brave  skipper.  Sir 
Patrick  Spens,  who  obeyed  the  king's  orders  to  sail  to  Nor- 
way, and  whose  good  ship  on  the  return  voyage  was  splin- 
tered on  Scotland's  shore,  with  the  loss  of  every  noble 
knight  and  every  broad  piece  of  gold.  Perhaps  she  re- 
membered Scotland's  ill-fated  battle  of  Culloden,  where 
the  Scottish  heather  was  dyed  a  deeper  red  with  the  blood 
of  those  brave  friends  of  bonnie  Prince  Charlie. 

What  might  have  been  the  "  natural  sorrow,  loss,  or 
pain"? 

Still  bending  over  her  sickle,  the  maiden  sang  the  song 
in  harmony  with  the  sound  of  the  waves  on  the  shore  of  her 
native  land.  Her  grain  would  add  to  the  store  of  the  little 
family  at  home.  The  song  kindled  the  soul  of  the  poet, 
and  through  him  men  catch  the  inspiration  that  service  is 
beautiful. 

Generalization. — Summanj  of  the  Poem:  The  beauty 
of  humble  service. 

The  song  that  still  overflows  all  the  world  of  the  poet's 
readers. 


Outlines  of  Lessons  257 

The  value  of  the  service  depends  upon  the  spirit  in 
which  it  is  rendered. 

Application. — The  maiden  showed  joy  in  her  work,  al- 
though her  life  had  known  sadness.  This  ethical  lesson 
cannot  be  pressed  home,  but  the  children's  interest  in  the 
poem  may  be  deepened  and  they  may  respond  to  it  more 
readily  if  the  facts  of  the  poets  are  wrought  into  a  written 
paper  upon  an  allied  subject,  such  as — 

1.  A  Visit  to  the  Cottage  Home  of  the  Solitary  Reaper. 

2.  Harvest  Time  in  the  Highlands,  Told  by  a  Brother  of 
the  Solitary  Eeaper. 


A  SEEIES  OF  LESSONS  IN  GEOGKAPHY 

VIENNA,    THE   CHIEF  GATE   CITY    OF   EUKOPE 

These  lessons  on  Vienna  are  planned  for  the  first  in  a 
series  on  several  European  cities,  to  be  given  in  the  seventh 
or  eighth  grades  to  illustrate  the  influence  of  geographical 
environment,  and  the  control  of  man  on  such  environment. 
Vienna  has  been  chosen  to  begin  the  series  because  of  its 
striking  geographical  position,  and  because,  though  one  of 
the  oldest  cities  of  Europe,  it  is  to-day  one  of  the  most  mod' 
eru  and  brilliant. 

In  the  study  of  Europe,  which  should  precede  these  les- 
sons, the  attention  of  the  pupils  should  be  called  in  a 
general  way  to  some  of  the  natural  conditions  leading  to 
the  location  and  growth  of  towns  and  villages.  For  ex- 
ample, the  convergence  of  the  Alpine  passes  on  the  north- 

*  Teacher  i8  referred  for  material  on  these  lessons  to  Die  Geo- 
graphische  Lage  von  Wien,  hy  A.  Pcnck,  published  by  IIolzcl,  Vienna; 
Ver  Doden  der  Siadt  Wien,  by  Ed.  Suess ;  and  Baedeker's  Austria, 


258  School  Management 

■west  corner  of  Italy  explains  the  location  of  Milan  and 
Turin  ;  the  confluence  of  the  Moselle  and  the  Rhine  is  the 
raison  d'etre  of  Coblentz  ;  the  fine  roadstead  where  Plym- 
outh is  located  was  the  nearest  English  harbor  to  the 
Spanish  Main,  and  guarded  the  entrance  to  the  channel  ; 
and  the  great  bend  of  the  Loire  brought  Paris  nearer  the 
fertile  Limagne,  and  was  the  point  where  the  roads  from 
the  interior  provinces  converged  upon  Paris. 

The  pupils  should  also  be  led  to  see  how  natural  condi- 
tions sometimes  militate  against  the  continued  prosperity 
of  a  city.  Pisa,  once  a  seaport  at  the  mouth  of  the  Arno, 
now  with  its  river  choked  with  silt,  and  Bruges,  formerly  a 
populous  city  three  miles  from  its  seaport,  and  now  stranded 
seven  miles  inland  by  the  advance  of  the  shore  line,  may 
be  given  as  illustrations  of  cities  out-distanced  in  their  com- 
petition for  trade  and  wealth  by  their  more  fortunate 
neighbors,  and  visited  to-day  by  the  traveller  chiefly  be- 
cause of  the  interest  in  a  past  life  which  their  old  streets 
and  buildings  excite. 

For  the  lessons  on  Vienna  each  pupil  has  an  atlas  con- 
taining good  physical  maps  of  Europe  and  its  countries. 
The  map  of  Austria  contains  a  small  inset  map  of  the  im- 
mediate environs  of  Vienna  of  which  use  will  be  made. 
On  the  wall  is  a  map  of  the  present  city,  with  the  old  town 
and  the  newly  incorporated  villages  marked  so  as  to  be 
easily  distinguished. 

The  teacher  may  begin  the  lesson  by  asking  a  child  to 
name  some  of  the  natural  conditions  which  have  led  to  the 
settlement  and  growth  of  towns,  and  to  use  as  illustrations 
the  cities  and  towns  of  Europe.  Then  may  be  asked  the 
reasons  why  such  towns  as  Pisa,  Bruges,  Ravenna,  etc., 
once  towns  of  importance,  should  have  sunk  into  insig- 
nificance. The  class  is  then  ready  for  the  statement  of  the 
new  work  about  to  be  undertaken  and  its  purpose ;  that 


Outlines  of  Lessons  259 

they  are  to  begin  this  work  with  Vienna,  a  city  which  has 
existed  upward  of  two  thousand  years;  and  that  they  are  to 
endeavor  to  discover  why  it  has  not  followed  the  fate  of 
these  languishing  cities,  but  is  to-day  one  of  the  great  cap- 
itals of  Europe. 

The  Teaching  of  the  Lesson. — As  the  key  to  the 
history  of  Vienna  is  its  geograpliic position,  let  us  study  its 
location. 

Turn  to  the  physical  map  of  Europe  and  look  at  the  great 
highland  mass  which  stretches  from  the  Carpathians  to  the 
Pyrenees.  What  two  parts  of  Europe  does  this  great  wall 
separate  ?  Name  any  breaks  in  this  wall  by  which  people 
from  the  cold,  cloudy  North  could  enter  the  warm,  sunny 
South.  (Children  name  Rhone  Valley,  Alpine  passes  of 
the  Simplon,  St.  Bernard,  St.  Gotthard,  etc.)  Notice 
that  at  Vienna  the  most  massive  part  of  this  wall  is  sud- 
denly broken.  "With  what  mountains  does  the  wall  begin 
again  ?  Look  at  this  broad  gateway  that  opens  in  the 
mountain  wall.  Between  what  parts  of  Europe  does  it 
make  intercourse  easy  ?    What  city  lies  here  ? 

Turn  now  to  the  map  of  Austria  and  look  at  the  roads 
which  diverge  from  this  gate.  Let  us  take  that  to  the 
south  first. 

Trace  the  line  where  the  Alps  suddenly  fall  off  into  the 
Plain  of  Hungary.  What  is  the  direction  of  this  line  ? 
Trace  it  to  the  Adriatic.  What  mountains  lie  between  the 
Plain  of  Hungary  and  the  sea  ?  What  indications  do  you 
find  that  they  can  be  crossed  with  little  difficulty  ?  Once 
on  the  shores  of  the  Adriatic,  wliat  fruitful  countries  of 
Europe  can  be  easily  readied  ?  Trace  tlie  road  that  ex- 
ists to-day  between  Vienna  and  Trieste.  What  natural 
features  guide  its  position  ?  Where  does  it  leave  the 
plain  and  enter  the  highland  ?  Why  ?  This  Semmering 
Pass  was  the  first  Alpine  pass  to  be  crossed  by  the  rail- 


SCO  School  Management 

road.  It  is  a  beautiful  ride,  and  wonderful  feats  of  engi- 
neering were  accomplished  in  its  construction.  The  old 
high-road  is  a  favorite  with  bicyclists,  and  hundreds  of 
wheelmen  pour  out  of  Vienna  as  soon  as  the  schools  close  in 
the  summer  to  ride  through  the  Styrian  mountains  and  the 
Semmering.  AVhat  city  in  Italy  is  the  junction  for  the 
lines  to  Trieste  and  Venice  ? 

Look  now  for  the  broader,  easier  road  which  leads  from 
Vienna  to  the  southeast.  To  what  great  inland  sea  does 
this  valley  lead  ?  To  what  two  continents  does  the  sea 
belong  ?  Which  part  of  it  is  Asiatic  ?  Tell  about  the  size 
of  the  Danube  and  its  branches  between  Vienna  and  the 
Black  Sea.  What  influence  has  this  broad  river  and  its 
branches  had  upon  the  entrance  of  Eastern  peoples  into 
Europe  ?  Name  any  who  came  into  Europe  by  this  river 
valley. 

The  Romans  early  saw  the  importance  of  barring  the 
gate  at  Vienna  against  their  barbarian  foes  to  the  east,  and 
established  a  camp  here  in  the  first  century.  Later,  in  the 
days  of  the  Roman  Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius,  who  died 
here,  it  became  an  important  military  outpost.  After  the 
decay  of  the  Roman  power,  what  dangers  would  threaten 
the  people  of  middle  Europe  because  of  the  unguarded 
gate  ?  In  the  fifth  century  the  Huns,  a  fierce  people  from 
the  steppes  of  central  and  western  Asia,  poured  into  Europe 
through  this  gate  and  well-nigh  destroyed  Vienna.  Later, 
the  city  sulfered  fearful  sieges  at  the  hands  of  the  Turks 
but  it  survived  these  disasters  and  rose  each  time  like  the 
PhcEnix  upon  the  ashes  of  the  old  city.  In  which  general 
direction  do  the  roads  already  traced  lead  from  Vienna  ? 
Which  would  you  call  a  continental  highway?  Turn  to 
the  map  of  Europe  and  examine  the  country  north  of 
Vienna.  What  highland  abuts  on  the  Danube  from  the 
north  ?    What  influence  does  it  have  on  easy  communica- 


Outlines  of  Lessons  261 

tion  between  Germany  and  the  South  ?  See  how  like  a 
rampart  it  stands  before  the  great  gate  !  What  branch  of 
the  Danube  makes  an  opening  in  this  highland  ?  Trace 
the  road  along  tliis  river  on  the  map  of  Austria.  AVhat 
rivers  of  Germany  are  easily  reached  by  means  of  the  March  ? 
What  does  the  Moravian  Gate  tell  of  the  ease  by  which  the 
divide  between  the  Oder  and  the  March  can  be  crossed? 
How  is  the  Valley  of  the  Elbe  brought  into  communication 
with  the  Danube  ? 

From  early  times  amber  was  brought  from  the  shores  of 
the  Baltic  to  the  people  on  the  middle  Danube  and  in  the 
Po  Valley.  Point  out  the  "amber  highway."  Name  the 
rivers  crossed  and  followed  and  countries  traversed.  As 
the  middle  Danube  formed  a  boundary  to  the  Roman  Em- 
pire, there  must  have  been  considerable  traffic  up  and  down 
stream.  Salt  was  an  important  commodity.  Where  was 
it  mined?  To  what  places  distributed  ?  One  of  the  oldest 
streets  in  Vienna  is  called  Salzgries,  salt-exchange,  thus 
testifying  to  the  importance  of  the  traffic. 

IIow  many  lines  of  travel  cross  where  Vienna  stands  ? 
Take  an  outline  map,  locate  the  city,  and  sketch  in  these 
three  main  highways.   Mark  important  points  on  the  roads. 

Look  at  the  map  of  Europe  again  and  trace  the  Danube 
to  its  source.  Describe  routes  of  travel  between  the  Danube 
and  Paris,  the  Danube  and  the  Rhine  countries.  Is  com- 
munication easy  or  difficult  between  these  parts  of  Europe  ? 
Show  how  the  Danube  plays  the  part  of  a  great  street  be- 
tween eastern  and  western  Europe  ;  between  western  Europe 
and  the  Orient ;  between  middle  Europe  and  Italy.  What 
part  did  the  Danube  play  in  the  crusades  ?  It  was  at  the 
castle  of  Diirrenstein,  just  west  of  Vienna  on  the  Danube, 
that  the  faithful  Blondel  discovered  his  master,  Richard 
the  Lion-hearted,  who  was  imprisoned  here  on  his  way 
home  from  Jerusalem. 


262  ScJiool  Management 

What  a  wonderful  location  Vienna  has  at  the  junction 
of  all  these  crosswuys  !  Contrast  its  location  with  that  of 
Pisa.  In  what  ways  is  that  of  Vienna  more  favorable  to 
the  permanence  of  a  large  city.  How  does  it  compare 
with  the  location  of  Venice  ?     Bruges  ? 

Do  you  recall  a  city  of  the  United  States  that  will  bear 
comparison  with  Vienna  in  its  location  and  in  the  effect 
which  this  location  has  had  upon  its  growth  ?  What 
similarities  do  yon  find  between  Pittsburg  and  Vienna  ? 
What  river  of  the  United  States  answers  to  the  Danube  ?  To 
the  March  ?  What  nations  early  saw  the  importance  of 
fortifying  this  "  Gateway  of  the  West "  against  the  enemy  ? 
Trace  all  the  roads  which  converge  toward  and  diverge  from 
both  these  gate  cities.  Name  some  important  places  from 
which  they  start  and  to  which  they  go.  Draw  a  sketch 
map  of  the  Vienna  gate  with  its  continental  crossways. 

Give  the  reasons  for  the  establishment  at  Vienna  of  a 
Roman  camp.  Why  should  it  have  grown  to  be  important 
enough  as  a  military  outpost  to  be  visited  by  the  em- 
peror ?  Find  out,  if  you  can,  what  he  was  doing  there  ? 
How  came  the  city  to  be  demolished  by  the  Huns  ?  Dur- 
ing one  of  the  sieges  by  the  Turks  neighboring  nations 
rallied  to  the  defence  of  Vienna  and  delivered  the  city. 
State  why  you  think  they  were  impelled  to  do  this. 

Examine  the  small  inset  map  for  the  exact  location  of 
Vienna.  Describe  its  location.  What  is  the  character  of 
the  Danube  here  ?  What  difficulties  beset  navigation  ? 
What  dangers  threaten  the  city  ?  What  might  be  done  to 
control  the  wandering  course  of  the  stream  and  to  lessen 
danger  from  floods  ?  This  the  Viennese  have  done  ;  the 
river  has  been  canalized,  much  marshy  land  reclaimed,  and 
many  old  arms  filled  up.  In  whicli  direction  is  the  city 
spreading  ?  All  these  little  villages  are  now  a  part  of 
Greater  Vienna  and  the  streets  radiate  from  the  old  town 


Outlines  of  Lessons  2G3 

out  to  the  hills.      What   crossways   does   the  city  face  ? 
From  which  direction  has  the  greatest  danger  come  ? 

Do  you  think  it  likely  that  Vienna  will  continue  to  hold 
her  own  as  an  important  capital  of  Europe  ?  Write  your 
reason.  Find  out  as  many  reasons  as  you  can  why  the 
chief  city  of  your  State  is  located  where  it  is. 


LESSONS  IN  PHYSICS  IN  LECTUEE  FORM 

TOPIC  :    EXPANSION    AND    CONTRACTION    UNDER  THE 
INFLUENCE    OF   HEAT 

Principle. — Solids,  liquids,  and  gases  expand  when 
heated  and  contract  when  cooled. 

Aim. — To  illustrate  the  above  principle,  in  order  that  it 
may  become  firmly  fixed  in  the  mind  of  the  pupil,  and  to 
show  the  vast  importance  of  many  of  its  applications  to  the 
affairs  of  daily  life. 

Experiment. — 1.  Provide  yourself  with  two  large 
screw-eyes,  one  of  which  will  just  pass  through  the  other. 
Screw  the  shaft  of  each  into  a  wooden  handle.  Show  the 
class  that  the  smaller  screw-eye  may  be  readily  made  to 
pass  through  the  other,  {a)  Heat  the  smaller  for  some 
time  in  the  flame  of  an  alcohol  lamp  or  a  Bunsen  burner, 
and  again  attempt  to  pass  it  through  the  opening  of  the 
larger.  Ask  the  pupils  to  make  a  note  of  the  results. 
{!))  When  the  temperature  has  fallen  to  its  former  level, 
immerse  the  larger  screw-eye  in  ice-water.  Leave  it  there 
for  some  time.  Then  attempt  the  passage  of  the  smaller 
piece  as  before. 

Ask  the  pupils  to  make  a  note  of  what  happened  and  to 
draw  a  conclusion  from  the  facts  observed. 

2.  Fill  an  air-thermometer  nearly  full  of  colored  water. 


264  School  Management 

so  that  the  upper  surface  of  the  liquid  rises  to  a  point 
about  half-way  up  the  stem.  Immerse  the  bulb  in  ice- 
water.  Kepeat  in  water  a§  hot  as  your  hands  can  bear. 
Ask  the  pupils  to  note  results  and  draw  conclusions. 
Try  various  liquids.  Make  a  note  of  the  one  in  which  the 
observed  change  is  the  greatest. 

3.  Introduce  a  thread  of  mercury  into  the  capillary 
stem  of  an  air- thermometer  in  such  a  manner  that  its 
inner  end  shall  stand  about  half-way  down  the  tube, 
(a)  Encircle  the  bulb  with  your  warm  hands,  {h)  Place 
the  bulb  in  cold  water,  (c)  Breathe  upon  it.  {d)  Cover 
it  with  a  wet  cloth  and  then  blow  upon  it.  Observations  ? 
Conclusions  ? 

Discussion. — Develop  the  following  facts  by  a  series 
of  skilful  questions  : 

1.  The  general  principle. 

2.  Solids  expand  the  least,  gases  the  most. 

3.  This  principle  may  be  made  use  of  in  various  ways 
for  construction  of  thermometers.  Mercury  is  the  most 
convenient  material  for  this  purpose,  although  alcohol, 
platinum,  and  air  are  better  suited  for  certain  special  cases. 

Applications. — Fitting  of  tires  to  carriage-wheels. 
Shrinking  of  jackets  upon  government  ordnances.  Making 
of  steam-tight  joints  in  boiler-plates  by  means  of  red-hot 
rivets.  Manufacturing  of  thermometers — mercury,  alcohol, 
metal,  air. 

Consequences. — Winds,  ocean  currents,  cracks  in 
chimneys,  fractures  of  rocks  under  alternate  heating  and 
cooling  of  summer  and  winter.  Allowances  necessary  in 
manufacture  of  bridges,  steam-boilers,  etc.,  for  the  **come 
and  go." 

Home  Work. — Library — Coefficients  by  Expansion. 
Thermometers,  Pyrometers,  Disintegration  of  Rocks. 


Outlines  of  Lessons  265 


topic:  capillarity 

The  rise  of  a  liquid  in  a  tube  of  small  bore  when  the 
liquid  wets  it. 

Aim. — To  arouse  interest  in  the  study  of  natural 
phenomena,  stimulate  the  reasoning  powers,  and  direct  at- 
tention to  an  interesting  application  of  a  well-known  prin- 
ciple to  affairs  of  daily  life. 

Preparation. — Half  fill  a  tumbler  with  water  colored 
red  by  a  bit  of  aniline  dye.  Secure  a  half  dozen  glass 
tubes  of  capillary  bore,  the  largest  not  over  a  millimetre  in 
internal  diameter,  and  rinse  thoroughly  in  clear  water. 

Experiment. — Dip  one  end  of  each  pipe  in  turn  into 
the  colored  liquid,  keeping  the  tube  in  an  upright  posi- 
tion, and  ask  the  pupils  to  observe  what  happens,  taking 
especial  pains  to  provide  that  all  may  be  able  to  see  clearly 
everything  that  goes  on. 

Discussion. — Develop  the  following  facts  by  a  series  of 
questions  skilfully  engineered  with  a  view  to  enlisting 
tbe  hearty  co-operation  of  every  member  of  the  class. 

1.  The  height  to  which  the  liquid  rises  is  dependent 
upon  the  bore  of  the  tube,  so  that  the  smaller  the  bore  the 
greater  is  the  action,  and  vice  versa. 

2.  Similar  phenomena  may  be  noted  when  a  lump  of 
loaf-sugar  is  placed  upon  a  drop  of  water,  a  damp  sponge 
is  used  to  wipe  up  a  wet  table,  a  blotter  is  employed  to  re- 
move superfluous  ink,  or  a  wick  is  provided  to  feed  the 
flame  of  a  kerosene  lamp. 

Generalization. — The  statement  holds  true  that,  in 
general,  liquids  rise  in  tubes  of  small  bore  when  they  wet 
them  to  a  height  dependent  upon  the  bore  of  the  tube,  so 
that  the  smaller  the  tube  the  greater  the  rise. 

Practical  Application. — The  wooden  posts  that  stand 


26G  School  Management 

upon  a  veranda  platform  supporting  the  roof  above  usually 
begin  to  show  signs  of  decay  first  around  the  base  where 
the  post  rests  upon  the  platform.  This  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  rain-water  creeps  into  the  narrow  crevice  and  is 
drawn  up  into  the  pores  of  the  wood  by  capillary  action, 
much  as  the  sap  ascends  the  tree,  and  rots  the  wood.  This 
effect  is  guarded  against  by  placing  an  iron  shoe  mounted 
upon  four  iron  balls,  like  casters,  under  the  post  to  enlarge 
the  space  beneath  and  thus  destroy  the  capillary  action. 

Home  Work. — Place  one  end  of  a  towel  in  a  bowl  of 
water,  suspend  the  other  one  from  a  nail  above,  and  note 
how  long  it  takes  for  the  water  to  wet  the  entire  towel. 

Library  Work. — Look  up  Capillarity,  Imbibition,  Eise 
of  Sap  in  Plants,  How  Plants  get  Water  from  the  Soil,  The 
Meniscus  of  Mercury  in  a  Thermometer,  The  Decay  of 
Eave  Troughs  and  Wooden  Joints  in  Outdoor  Structures, 
The  Depression  of  Liquid  in  a  Tube  when  the  Liquid  does 
not  Wet  the  Tube. 


A  LESSON  FOR  THE  LABORATORY 

TOPIC  :   ARCHIMIDES'S   PRINCIPLE 

A  body  immersed  in  a  liquid  is  buoyed  up  by  a  force 
equal  to  the  weight  of  the  liquid  displaced. 

Purpose. — Training  in  manipulation  of  apparatus. 
Development  of  doctrine  of  errors.  Illustration  of  an 
important  principle  in  physics. 

Apparatus. — A  solid  that  will  sink  in  water;  an  over- 
flow can  ;   a  catch-bucket ;   a  spring-balance  ;   thread. 

Experiment. — (a)  Weigh  the  solid  in  air.  {h)  Weigh 
it,  suspended  by  the  thread,  entirely  immersed  in  water, 
(c)  Compute  the  loss  of  weight,     {d)  Fill  the  overflow  can 


Outlines  of  Lesson,^  267 

full  of  water,  catch  what  overflows  through  the  pipe  and 
throw  it  away,  (e)  Place  the  bucket  under  the  spout  of 
the  overflow  can,  carefully  lower  the  solid  down  into  the 
latter  and  catch  the  overflow  in  the  bucket.  (/")  Weigh 
the  overflow.  Compare  the  apparent  loss  of  weight  of  the 
solid  with  the  weight  of  the  overflow,  i.e.,  the  displaced 
water.  Conclusion  ?  If  results  do  not  come  out  as  you 
think  they  should  state  what  you  regard  as  the  most  im- 
portant sources  of  errors.  Hints  :  If  the  spring-balance  is 
not  held  directly  on  a  level  with  the  eye  an  error  parallax 
will  be  introduced.  Great  care  should  be  taken  that  the 
various  parts  of  the  balance  do  not  cramp  each  other.  The 
overflow  can  may  continue  to  drip  too  long. 

Discussion. — State  clearly  your  method  in  manipula- 
tion of  apparatus.  Compute  your  percentage  of  error,  and 
report.  Tell  what  you  regard  as  the  largest  source  of  error, 
and  suggest,  if  you  can,  some  means  of  reducing  this  to  a 
minimum. 

State  in  a  single  complete  sentence  the  principle  of 
Archimedes. 

Applications. — This  principle  is  used  in  the  launching 
of  ships,  the  rise  of  balloons,  the  raising  of  ships  from  the 
bottom  of  the  sea  by  means  of  submerged  corks,  etc. 

Library  Work. — Archimedes  and  the  Story  of  Hiero's 
Crown,  Pontoon  Bridges,  Balloons,  Cartesian  Diver,  Buoy- 
ancy, Equilibrium  of  Floating  Bodies. 


268  School  Management 


A  QUANTITATIVE  STUDY  OF  THE  BUSINESS 
ACTIVITIES  CENTRING  AROUND  AVHEAT- 
RAISING 

The  main  purpose  in  this  plan  is  to  illustrate  the  five 
formal  steps  of  the  recitation,  and  at  the  same  time  to 
show  how  the  study  of  arithmetic  may  be  focnssed  upon 
problems  that  deal  Avith  real  human  interests.  In  other 
words,  the  problems  are  such  as  not  only  to  afford  practice 
in  arithmetical  processes,  but  also  to  yield  results  that 
have  significance  on  their  own  account. 

No  attempt  has  been  made  to  exhaust  the  possibilities  of 
the  general  topic.  It  would  be  easy  to  add  problems  on 
transportation,  bread-making  in  the  home  and  at  the  bak- 
ery, wholesale  and  retail  grocery  trade,  and  other  commer- 
cial activities  based  upon  wheat-raising. 

Statement  of  Aim. — Let  us  find  out  what  kinds  of 
business  depend  upon  wheat-raising,  and  what  the  profits 
are  in  some  of  them. 

Preparation. — What  are  some  of  the  most  common 
and  important  uses  of  wheat  to  men  ? 

Trace  the  steps  by  which  wheat  finally  reaches  you  in 
the  form  of  bread  on  your  table. 

Presentation. — A  farmer  in  Minnesota  who  raised  360 
acres  of  wheat  this  year  (1903)  reports  that  his  land 
yielded  fifteen  bushels  of  wheat  per  acre,  and  that  he  sold 
his  crop  in  July  for  75  cents  a  bushel.  He  reports  also 
that  the  cost  per  acre  of  raising  and  marketing  his  wheat 
was  as  follows  :  Seed  wheat  (1^  bushels),  $1.00;  plough- 
ing, $1.00 ;  sowing,  65  cents;  harvesting  and  stacking, 
11.75  ;  threshing  and  marketing,  $1.50. 

According  to  this  report,  what  was  this  farmer's  profit 
on  his  wheat  crop  ?     [11,944.] 


Outlines  of  Lessons  269 

Many  farmers  in  Minnesota  rent  land  upon  which  to 
raise  wheat.  Good  wheat  land  rents  for  §3.50  an  acre  per 
year.  What  would  this  farmer's  profit  have  been  if  he  had 
rented  his  land  ?  [$784.]  How  does  this  profit  compare 
in  amount  with  the  profit  of  the  farmer  who  owns  his 
land  ?  How  does  it  compare  with  the  rent  [81,1G0]  paid 
for  the  land  ? 

A  milling  company  near  Minneapolis  gives  the  follow- 
ing statement  regarding  one  week's  business  in  July,  1003  : 
*'  Our  mill  grinds  600  barrels  of  flour  a  day  (that  is,  for  a 
twenty-four  hour  run).  We  paid  for  wheat  during  the 
week  from  90  cents  to  93  cents  per  bushel.  Our  average 
was  91  cents  for  No.  1  Northern  spring  wheat  per  bushel 
of  60  pounds. 

"  It  takes  4^  bushels  of  wheat  in  our  mill  to  manufacture 
a  barrel  of  flour,  weighing  196  pounds.  Besides  the  flour 
produced,  there  are  25  pounds  of  shorts,  47  pounds  of  bran, 
and  2  pounds  of  invisible  waste. 

"  We  received  for  the  bran  $14  per  ton  in  bulk  ;  for  the 
shorts,  $16  per  ton  ;  and  for  flour,  $4.50  per  barrel,  in 
half-  and  quarter-barrel  cotton  sacks,  at  the  mill.  Our 
sacks  cost  us  i\  cents  each  for  the  quarters,  and  6^  cents 
each  for  the  halves. 

**  We  employ  twenty-six  people.  This  includes  the  mill 
men,  manager,  book-keeper,  and  other  assistants. 

"  Our  profit  for  the  week  was  $347.66.  This  is  our  net 
profit,  after  paying  all  wages,  interest,  insurance,  taxes, 
and  other  expenses." 

From  this  study  of  the  milling  company,  find  how 
many  bushels  of  wheat  were  ground  each  day.  [2,700  bush- 
els.] How  many  pounds  of  wheat  are  ground  to  make  a 
barrel  of  flour  ?  [270  pounds.]  Find  the  total  amount  of 
flour,  bran,  and  shorts  ])roduced  by  the  mill  in  one  week. 
What  was  the  total  amount  received  for  the  products  of 


270  School  Management 

one  week  ?  [$18,104.40.]  Deducting  the  net  profit,  what 
was  the  total  expense  ?  [$17,756.74.]  To  whom  did  this 
amount  go  ? 

How  do  yon  account  for  the  difference  between  the 
amount  received  by  the  farmer  (75  cents  per  bushel)  and 
the  amount  paid  for  wheat  by  the  milling  company  (91 
cents  per  bushel)  ?  [Transportation,  storage,  and  profits 
of  middlemen.]  AVhy  was  the  milling  company  willing 
to  pay  the  large  dealers  a  higher  price  than  that  at  which 
the  farmer  sold  his  wheat  ?  [It  is  a  great  convenience 
to  have  the  grain  collected,  transported,  and  stored  until 
it  is  needed.] 

In  Chicago  the  large  dealers  in  wheat  and  other  kinds  of 
grain  have  formed  what  is  called  the  Board  of  Trade.  The 
members  meet  every  day  in  an  immense  hall  to  buy  and 
sell  grain  and  some  other  kinds  of  provisions,  among 
themselves  or  for  other  dealers.  [Other  details  may  be 
added  to  give  vividness  to  the  idea.] 

In  January,  1903,  Harris  &  Thompson,  a  firm  of 
dealers  in  the  Board  of  Trade,  bought  of  J.  "W.  Elson 
200,000  bushels  of  wheat  at  76|  cents  a  bushel.  "What  was 
the  total  value  of  the  wheat  ?  [$153,000.]  The  wheat 
Avas  to  be  delivered  in  the  following  May.  [Tliis  is  called 
dealing  in  ''May  wheat."]  Harris  &  Thompson  paid 
10^  down  [margin]  and  agreed  to  pay  the  balance  when 
the  wheat  was  delivered  in  May.  If  the  price  of  wheat  in 
May  should  be  higher  than  76^  cents  a  bushel,  who  would 
reap  the  advantage  ?  What  would  you  say  Harris  & 
Thompson  expected  to  occur  to  the  price  of  wheat  between 
January  and  May  ?  "What  did  Elson  expect  ?  [A  dealer 
who  buys  because  he  expects  the  price  to  advance  is  called 
a  "  bull " ;  one  who  sells  because  he  expects  the  price  to 
decline  is  called  a  "  bear."] 

In  May  the  price  of  wheat  had  advanced  to  78^  cents 


Outlines  of  Lessons  271 

a  bushel,  and  Harris  &  Thompson  at  once  sold  all  the 
wheat  they  had  bought  of  Elson.  Find  the  profit  of  Harris 
&  Thompson.  [$4,000. J  Suppose  the  price  of  wheat  had 
gone  down  to  75^  cents  a  bushel,  what  would  iiave  been  the 
loss  to  Harris  &  Thompson  ?  [$2,000.]  In  what  sense 
did  Elson  gain  or  lose  in  each  case  ? 

Comparison. — How  long  would  the  farm  of  360  acres 
supply  the  mill  with  wheat  for  grinding  ?  [2  days.]  How 
many  such  farms  would  be  necessary  to  keep  the  flour-mill 
running  constantly  ?  What  was  the  profit  of  the  mill  on 
the  flour  produced  from  the  amount  of  wheat  raised  by  the 
farmer?  [$115.88.]  How  does  the  profit  of  the  mill  for 
one  week  compare  with  the  profit  of  the  farmer  for  the  en- 
tire year  ?  [About  one-fifth.]  At  this  rate,  how  would  the 
annual  profit  of  the  mill  compare  with  that  of  the  farmer  ? 
[About  ten  times  as  great.]  How  do  you  account  for  this 
great  difference  in  profit  ?  [The  miller  handles  150  times 
as  much  wheat  as  the  farmer.] 

How  does  the  amount  of  wheat  handled  by  Harris  & 
Thompson  in  their  one  trade  with  Elson  compare  with 
that  handled  in  a  year  by  the  farmer  and  in  five  months 
by  the  milling  company  ?     How  do  the  profits  compare  ? 

Generalization. — From  the  results  of  these  compari- 
sons, what  would  you  say  is  one  of  the  large  influences  in 
determining  the  amount  of  profit  in  business  ?  [The  scale 
on  which  the  business  is  carried  on.] 

Large  profit  is  usually  the  result  of  a  large  amount  of 
business. 

Application. — What  besides  business  ability  is  needed 
to  carry  on  a  large  business  ?  [Capital.]  How  is  capital 
accumulated  ?  [By  saving.]  What  advantage,  then,  is 
there  in  making  a  practice  of  saving  a  part  of  one's  income 
or  profit  ? 

[Further  application  may  be  found   in  a  study  of  the 


272  School  Management 


t>' 


volume  of  business  and  the  profits  of  some  of  the  large 
railroad  companies  and  of  the  great  industrial  corporations. 
The  financial  statements  of  many  of  these  appear  regularly 
in  the  daily  papers  of  large  cities.] 


LESSON  ON  THE  STAMP  ACT 

(as  a  type  of  the  causes  of  the  revolutionary 
war) 

Statement  of  Aim. — Let  us  consider  how  England 
proposed  to  tax  the  American  colonies  and  what  came 
of  it. 

Preparation. — What  territory  had  England  lately  added 
to  her  American  possessions  ?  [Canada  and  the  eastern 
Mississippi  Valley.] 

How  had  this  territory  been  acquired?  [By  war  with 
France.]  To  what  extent  had  this  war  been  carried  on  in 
the  interest  of  the  colonies  ?  What  part  had  the  colonies 
taken  in  it  ? 

What  are  some  of  the  things  that  make  the  cost  of  war 
very  great  ?  What  reasons  can  you  give  why  England  might 
reasonably  have  expected  the  colonies  to  bear  part  of  the 
cost  of  the  French  and  Indian  War  ?  What  further  ex- 
pense would  arise  in  providing  for  the  defence  of  the 
colonies  and  of  the  new  territory  ? 

How  do  governments  get  the  money  to  pay  the  cost  of 
wars,  public  buildings,  and  other  necessary  things  ?  Who 
pays  the  expenses  of  the  schools,  of  the  fire  department, 
and  of  other  departments  in  your  city  ?  How  did  the 
United  States  raise  money  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the  Span- 
ish War?  [Taxes  on  bank  checks,  telegrams,  and  legal 
documents;  and  extra  taxes  on  beer  and  other  things.]     Do 


Outlines  of  Lessom?  273 

yoa  remember  the  stamps  that  were  used  ?  [Show  some  of 
the  documentary  stamps.]  Did  we  object  to  buying  and 
using  these  stamps  ?     Why  not  ? 

Presentation. — In  what  different  ways  might  England 
have  secured  money  from  the  colonies  ? 

The  first  plan  proposed  by  Parliament  in  1765  was  a 
gtamp  tax  very  similar  to  that  adopted  by  the  United  States 
after  the  Spanish  War.  [Show  pictures  of  the  stamps.] 
According  to  the  Stamp  Act  passed  by  Parliament  these 
stamps,  costing  all  the  way  from  a  half-penny  (one  cent) 
to  ten  pounds  (fifty  dollars),  were  to  be  placed  on  all  im- 
portant law  and  business  documents,  on  newspapers  and 
other  printed  matter.  [Have  extracts  from  the  Stamp  Act 
read  in  class.] 

What  are  the  advantages  of  raising  money  by  the  use  of 
stamps  ?  Why,  probably,  did  Parliament  take  this  means 
of  getting  money  from  the  colonies  rather  than  depend 
upon  voluntary  contributions  voted  by  the  colonial  as- 
semblies as  she  had  done  before  ?  Why  should  some  mem- 
bers of  Parliament  strongly  oppose  the  Stamp  Act  ?  [Read 
Barre's  speech  in  Parliament.] 

Were  the  Americans  as  truly  Englishmen  as  if  they  had 
been  living  in  England  ?  What  reasons  might  they  give, 
then,  for  being  indignant  at  the  enactment  of  the  Stamp 
Act  ?  In  what  ways  could  they  show  their  indignation 
publicly  ?  [Assign  for  reading  selections  from  the  speeches 
of  James  Otis,  Samuel  Adams,  and  Patrick  Henry,  and  an 
account  of  the  Stamp  Act  Congress.] 

Why  should  a  stronger  effect  be  produced  by  a  complaint 
made  to  England  by  a  congress  of  representatives  of  several 
colonies  than  one  made  by  the  various  colonies  separately  ? 

State  briefly  the  principal  rights  that  the  Americans  in- 
sisted upon  and  the  chief  grievances  of  which  they  com- 
plained.    [There  is  an  excellent  opportunity  to  introduce 


274  School  Management 

dramatic  action  here  and  to  secure  a  vital  review  of  the 
main  ideas  by  having  the  pupils  represent  in  their  own 
way  the  Stamp  Act  Congress,  introducing  the  "  Dechara- 
tion  of  Rights  and  Grievances,"  arguing  the  points,  and 
finally  signing  the  Declaration.] 

Why  did  the  people  of  the  colonies  say  that  Parliament 
did  not  represent  them  ?    Who  did  represent  them  ? 

In  what  ways  could  the  colonies  resist  the  Stamp  Act  ? 
[Assign  for  reading  accounts  of  the  "  Sons  of  Liberty,** 
destruction  of  stamps,  and  non-importation  agreements.] 

Why  were  the  Americans  called  "Sons  of  Liberty"? 
How  could  the  non-importation  agreements  injure  Eng- 
land ?  What  class  of  men  in  England  would  they  affect 
most  seriously  ?  Why  should  the  merchants  and  manu- 
facturers of  England  object  to  the  Stamp  Act  ?  What 
influence  would  their  objections,  added  to  the  indignation 
expressed  by  the  colonies,  be  apt  to  have  on  Parliament  ? 
[Assign  for  reading  reprinted  extracts  from  Boston  and 
London  papers  giving  an  account  of  the  repeal  of  the 
Stamp  Act,  1766.] 

A  few  months  after  repealing  the  Stamp  Act,  Parliament 
passed  an  act  declaring  that  it  had  the  right  to  tax  the 
colonies  **in  all  cases  whatsoever."  For  what  reasons 
probably  did  Parliament  pass  this  act  ?  What  does  the 
passing  of  this  act  show  us  concerning  the  real  feeling 
between  Parliament  and  the  colonies  ? 

Comparison. — Were  the  colonies  related  to  England 
at  all  as  the  various  States  are  related  to  the  United  States  ? 
If  the  colonies  had  no  objection  to  the  amotint  of  money 
that  they  would  have  to  pay  for  stamps,  why  should  they 
not  have  been  as  willing  to  use  the  stamps  as  we  are  to  use 
postage-stamps  or  the  Spanish  AVar  stamps  ?  If  you  were 
a  member  of  a  club  or  society  but  were  not  allowed  to  vote 
or  take  any  active  part  in  its  meetings,  what  objections 


OutUnes  of  Lessons  275 

might  you  raise  to  some  things  the  society  might  vote 
to  do? 

Generalization. — As  a  member  of  the  clnb  or  society, 
how  would  you  state  your  objection  in  the  briefest  possible 
way  ?  Can  you  state  the  complaint  of  the  colonies  in  a 
similar  way  ?  Their  statement  of  the  case  was  that  they 
complained  of  "  taxation  without  representation." 

Application. — [One  of  the  main  fields  for  the  applica- 
tion of  this  general  truth  is  in  the  further  study  of  the 
causes  of  the  Eevolutionary  War.] 

Is  a  person  truly  represented  when  he  votes  for  a  man 
for  any  office,  knowing  little  or  nothing  about  his  char- 
acter or  his  opinions  ?  Why  do  many  men  value  so 
slightly  the  privilege  to  which  their  forefathers  in  the 
colonies  attached  such  great  importance  ?  What  can  a 
man  do  to  make  sure  that  he  is  properly  represented  in  his 
own  government  ?  [Take  an  active  interest  in  the  nomi- 
nation and  election  of  officers.] 


276  School  Management 


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Bihliograpliy  277 

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278  School  Management 

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